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Nouns

A type of word that represents an entity (abstract or concrete). A noun can be a compound of several words using genitive phrases and relative clauses. When a noun is more than one word, it is called a noun phrase. A noun phrases contains a nucleus or head noun and quantifiers are on the left and modifiers are chained to the right. The nearer the modifiers are to the nucleus, the more innate the quality is.

Roles​

Causer / Voluntary Subject​

The û particle precedes this noun phrase. If this is the first noun phrase of a sentence, the particle can be elided (omitted).

During causative sentences, a NP with this role represents the causer. During non-causative sentences, a NP with this role will be the agent or experiencer of the action or state. Additionally during non-causative sentences, the marked noun phrase is making the choice to commit the act or experience the state of the predicate of their own free will.

When used with the negatitive particle yôk, it means that the marked noun phrase is either excluded from being the subject of the committed act of the predicate or that the act itself was committed but by something other than the marked noun phrase.

Causee / Involuntary Subject​

The ôlê particle precedes this noun phrase.

During causative sentences, a NP with this role will represent the causee. During non-causative sentences, an NP with this role will be the agent or experiencer of the action. Additionally during non-causative sentences, the marked noun phrase is not making the choice to commit the act of their own free will. Either they are bound/forced to do so or they do not have the wherewithal to make a conscious choice on the matter and are acting out of some basic instinst.

When used with the negatitive particle yôk it has the equivalent semantic interpretation as the voluntary subject particle û.

Patient, Theme, Stimulus (Direct Object)​

Any free-standing verb will precede this noun phrase. Between the verb and the noun phrase can exist several verb modifier particles. See Verbs for more details.

The role of this object is for the special thematic argument to transitive verbs. The argument (the direct object) can be broken down into sub-types: a patient, a theme, or a stimulus. In English, this represents some of the senses of the word "to" and "into" (although, many English verbs don't rely on a preposition particle to introduce their direct object).

Base Verbs Without This Particle

You can provide a verb prepositionally without also providing a direct object noun phrase. Simply start another preposition, use a connector to create a compound sentence, use a comma to end a clause or use a period to end a sentence (the only thing you can't do is immediately follow a verb with another verb because it will be perceived as being the direct object of the preceding verb). Not using this noun phrase slot can have an impact on how base verb sentences are interpreted. Without providing a direct object, a base verb is interpreted as being intransitive or in an unthematic and generic manner (since no theme is being provided). That being said, sometimes it's easiest to just think of an implicit ni existing in the direct object slot.

A patient is an entity that undergoes the action and changes state in some manner. A theme is an entiy that undergoes the action but doesn't change state. A stimulus is an entity that prompts or triggers the emotional or sensory action that is being described. These kinds of direct objects aren't separately marked because which kind of object is being specified can be determined from the verb that is being used.

When this noun phrase is preceded by the negatitive particle yôk, it means that the marked noun phrase is either excluded from being the argument of the committed act of the predicate or that the act itself was committed but with a direct object that is something other than the marked noun phrase.

Manner or Material​

The bi particle precedes this noun phrase.

This role is used for noun phrases that represent the manner or material of the predicate. In English, this is represented by the use of words with the "-ly" suffix (adverbs) or some senses of the words "by" and "with".

Thematic Relations

This preposition and the remaining described here can be used with intransitive and transitive verb predicates and are only needed in certain circumstances when extra thematic information is useful to describing the predicate in a new way. These prepositions are known as true thematic relations. Subjects (û or ôlê) are honorary members of the thematic relation club since they are traditionally referred to as morphosyntactic arguments. They are included in the same class of word as the true thematic relations to simplify the grammatical system. This system is what allows the language to have free constituent ordering.

When used with the negatitive particle yôk, it means that the marked noun phrase is either excluded from being the manner or material of the committed act of the predicate or that the act itself was committed but in a manner that is something other than the marked noun phrase. In English, this represents some of the senses of the word "without".

Instrument or Means​

The tô particle precedes this noun phrase.

This role is used for noun phrases that represent some entity that was used to carry out the action. In English, this represents some of the senses of the words "with", "using", "by", and "via".

When used with the negatitive particle yôk, it means that the marked noun phrase is either excluded from being the means or instrument of the committed act of the predicate or that the act itself was committed but by means or with an object that is something other than the marked noun phrase. In English, this represents some of the senses of the word "without".

Location or Time​

The hoî particle precedes this noun phrase.

This role is used for noun phrases that represent where or when the action occurs. In English, this represents some of the senses of the words "in", "at", and "on".

The counterpart of this particle is lon for distance and duration. Unlike the lon particle, when you provide an amount of time to hoî it means the length of time that it took to achieve the task specified in the rest of the predicate.

When used with the negatitive particle yôk, it means that the marked noun phrase is either excluded from being the location or time of the committed act of the predicate or that the act itself was committed but at a location or time that is somewhere other than the marked noun phrase.

Direction or Destination (Indirect Object)​

The mût particle precedes this noun phrase.

This role is used for noun phrases that represent where the action is directed towards. In English, this represents some of the senses of the words "to", "into", and "towards". Any time you might need an indrect object or recipient, you can use this preposition to describe that constituent.

Reciprocity

When you use this preposition with this noun phrase:

xokôn dîzel

it means that the predicate is a reciprocal action which means that it happened between the subjects instead of the subjects directing that action towards some other referred entity.

When used with the negatitive particle yôk, it means that the marked noun phrase is either excluded from being the recipient of the committed act of the predicate or that the act itself was committed but with recipient that is something other than the marked noun phrase.

Source or Origin​

The sûn particle precedes this noun phrase.

This role is used for noun phrases that represent where the action originated. In English, this represents nearly all of the senses of the word "from" (except for differentiation and causation).

noyo dôstoc lîbû in lufono sûn siskin moskûl noyo. I got a letter from my brother.

nîmû kôî dôstoc yôk fisun nêôs sûn nec ônî tûek nucoto. You can't get all your news from the Internet.

tômôs ôfo sûn dus eson tukwos dus. This manuscript is from the 1980s.

nîo yûnyoû sî tômôs xe hoî zomo mulô sûn sokofû mût deku. He had books piled from floor to ceiling.

nîo li sî cok hoî lono xobêk sûn sinsî Xikogô. He departed yesterday from Chicago.

kûu bono bi elentêt sûn bêlêtê. Face away from the wall!

lono kon wêloi sûn suhot eson mût suhot tîû.The working day runs from 9 am to 5 pm.

kôî wedo oxon doînbî sûn lono dus xêtî yê wuto xêtî. Tickets are available from 17th July.

dûstu tônkô nîmû sûn kut mût dus. Rate your pain from 1 to 10.

kûu socok xe kôto mîkdol sûn kut. Start counting from 1.

nîmû kôî bêûdo ozûul sûn sôhoûk mût kon cukto. You can study anything from math to literature.

kûu dênêmêk xe dêko ni sûn bindû nîo yê dêko. Try to see it from his point of view.

sûn mulô yê niwos kûon û nîmû bi yoûtî kôî dêko bûmî yê cênbô môî. From the top of the lighthouse you can just see the mainland.

dûî dus sûn niswî dus kut dî ônsu. 20 from 31 leaves 11.

lîbû gelmis yê foko mefûs lono bi môcîbo kôs xe li mefûs sûn lozô yê bînton lono. A parasol protects from the sun's rays.

kôson ni sûn ûlôgun nulun sêlbô sofîn. It's made from pure gold.

When used with the negatitive particle yôk, it means that the marked noun phrase is either excluded from being the source or origin of the committed act of the predicate or that the act itself was committed but with a source or origin that is something other than the marked noun phrase.

Beneficiary or Purpose​

The oxon particle precedes this noun phrase.

This role is used for noun phrases that represent for whose benefit the action occurs or the reason for the action. In English, this represents some of the senses of the word "for".

The many faces of the English "for"

There are many varying uses of the English word "for" and they don't all line up under oxon so we've included an in-depth walkthrough of most of the interpretations that are in the wiktionary entry. The translations represent the proper way to formulate the desired semantic meaning.

  1. ⛔ Towards; in the direction of.

    umo kôsmô li nô mût mûêsî. The astronauts headed for the moon.

    kûu li nô bi fîkî mût bûmî tôxûtsi. Run for the hills!

    nîo li nô mût zinkon hôn wokût fos nîo bunyentoc sî hoî. He was headed for the door when he remembered.

  2. ✅ Directed at; intended to belong to.

    noyo yûnyoû fin oxon nîmû I have something for you.

  3. ✅ In order to help, benefit, gratify, honor etc. (someone or something).

    hôn môî fin fos noyo tûu, û noyo tûu oxon nîmû. Everything I do, I do for you.

    nûs yûnyoû kôndodû yê lono kon lôzîc oxon umo Zêenit. We're having a birthday party for Janet.

    ônî bôklôn cûdo sî kôto in ondo oxon kôndodû kon cûdo yôûlî. The mayor gave a speech for the charity gala.

  4. ✅ Befitting of someone’s beliefs, needs, wants, skills, or tastes; best suited to.

    hôn fos xe wêko mokon hoî zuko bi dûndon, li eswen en fos nîmû kôî tûu, bînê wêloi ôfo oxon yôk nîmû. If having to bag the groceries correctly is more than you can handle, then this isn't the job for you.

  5. ✅ To be used or treated in a stated way, or with a stated purpose.

    ôfo li gongoxî ûlôgun nêôs oxon oûtô gîsgûl noyo. This is a new bell for my bicycle.

    bîek sûît onô oxon kôndodû yê ûsên dizêl yê umo Tomu ûn Helen. The cake is for Tom and Helen's anniversary.

    kûôxi ôfo hoî ôfo oxon xe mokon. dîzel oxon xe li êo fonmot. These apples here are for eating. The rest are for throwing away.

  6. ✅ Supporting, in favour of. (Antonym: against)

    noî môî umo xe oxon bêsnêhot, kûu li êo nô bi mulô ôlê zûngô nîmû. All those for the motion, raise your hands.

    zik oxon mozûn bukû. Who's for ice-cream?

    noyo oxon xe li nô tô oûtô kîskô. I'm for going by train.

    dus gôcîdon sî oxon ûn niswî dên. Ten voted for, and three against. (with implied object)

  7. ⛔ Because of.

    nîo moskûl bît kôto yôk fos nîo zûtô ni, ûn nênko ulyô û nîo wohî bêmon yôk xe li yôûlî mût nîo moskûl.He wouldn't apologize; and just for that, she refused to help him.

    nîo li xoînbo bi dêko bi xôn eswen nênko xe nocîdo sî bûgot. He looks better for having lost weight. (UK usage)

    noyo sûko nîo nênko êto môtîfô. I like her for lots of reasons.

  8. ✅ Intended to cure, remove or counteract; in order to cure, remove or counteract.

    cîgîlsu in mokon oxon hûstun nîmû. This medicine is for your cough.

    noyo buswen xe isbulyol nozî hoî niwos oxon mûxî mîtmo nomû. I need to spray my house for termites.

  9. ⛔ Over (a period of time).

    noyo niwos hoî ôfo lon niswî ûsên. I've lived here for three years.

    nîo kôntêsto lon yoûtî lono hôn nûyo kon cukto mîtetên. They fought for days over a silly pencil.

  10. ⛔ Throughout or across (a distance in space).

    noyo kôî dêko lon yoûtî ônî kut cênbô yê mônbili. I can see for miles.

  11. ⛔ Used to introduce a subject of a to-infinitive clause.

    fos ônî fiyûxît nûs cûdo yôk munî oksîôs nûs, li yôk ûsowo. It is unreasonable for our boss to withhold our wages.

    noyo bi tôlkî fôlun fos nîmû li xowosê. All I want is for you to be happy.

  12. ✅ On behalf of.

    noyo wedo cizî oxon nîo. I will stand in for him.

    noyo kôto oxon ônî bôklôn wîk.I speak for the Prime Minister.

  13. ⛔ In the role or capacity of; instead of; in place of.

    noyo yôn dîncî yê kudûdo hûlû misli mîêbil kon conzodo. I used a hay bale for a bed.

    nîo yûnyoû ûnfûnô zîzîyo misli fos wedo dûuncît nîo oxon ni. He's got a turnip for a brain.

  14. ⛔ In exchange for; in correspondence or equivalence with.

    noyo dôstoc tîû fîyên munî nênko xe wedo oûtô nokdo foxo. I got five hundred pounds for that old car!

  15. ✅ In order to obtain or acquire.

    noyo belêxu oxon mûlû xe hoî kônyêc kûngîyo yê lono cinôbu. I am aiming for completion by the end of business Thursday.

    nîo bêûdo oxon cêo yê mulô êto. He's going for his doctorate.

    nîmû fôlun xe li nô oxon îskô ûlzo ko. xe you want to go for coffee?

    umo xe niwos hoî môî boxô yê kûôcyo Elofo, dîyondê sî umo Delfi oxon zuwobû. People all over Greece looked to Delphi for answers.

    nîmû kôî li nô mût gufuyo oxon yoûtî hûwu ko. Can you go to the store for some eggs?

    noyo wêko munî bi sôbo oxon oûtô. I'm saving up for a car.

    kûu motsi yôk oxon zuwobû. Don't wait for an answer.

    nîo sôlû mût nîmû oxon zik. What did he ask you for?

  16. ⛔ By the standards of, usually with the implication that those standards are lower than one might otherwise expect; considering.

    li ûsowo hôn wokût ni. Fair for its day.

    nîo li kîôsô hôn umo wohî nokdo. She's spry for an old lady.

    nîo li ofînê êto hôn dûî ûsên yê nokdo. He's very mature, for a two-year-old.

  17. ⛔ To be, or as being.

    kûu oncêmon yôk noyo misli umo gôwo. Don't take me for a fool.

  18. ⛔ (usually in the phrase 'for all') Despite, in spite of.

    hôn môî kon bêûdo nîo yê wîlûwo êto li yôk xoînbo û fos nîo li colot êto.For all his expensive education, he didn't seem very bright.

  19. ✅ Indicating something desired or anticipated.

    oxon nixîn yê tîmîok pipôk. O for the wings of a dove.

    oxon nixîn fos li nô tô nu. Ah! for wings to soar …

    hôn îbûdû oxon côûfon yê cêo kut ze. And now for a slap-up meal!

  20. ⛔ (in expressions such as 'for a start') Introducing the first item(s) in a potential sequence .

    tûu kon dodê tô woyû in besol nu. hôn kut fin û noyo kôî dodê yôk lôîcôk. Go scuba diving? For one thing, I can't even swim.

    hôn dîzel nûs yûnyoû yôk ozûul yôn. For another, we don't have any equipment.

  21. ✅ (with names, chiefly US) In honor of; after.

    somo mût nîo oxon motûo motûo nîo. He is named for his grandfather.

  22. ⛔ (UK) Due for or facing (a certain outcome or fate).

    nîo li êo kobût bi mûlû ôlê mêdûson in ondo ulyô. nîo bi îbûdû bono xe nocîdo wêloi nîo lôîcôk. He totally screwed up that project. Now he's surely for the sack.

  23. ⛔ (chiefly US) Out of; used to indicate a fraction, a ratio

    hôn ônî kut yê kon xobo boxô û umo Zônsi li sî niswî fun nonkû hoî lono. In terms of base hits, Jones was three for four on the day.

  24. ⛔ (cricket) Used as part of a score to indicate the number of wickets that have fallen.

    hoî kônyêc yê kelo û kûôcyo Ingulindu li niswî fîyên tîû fun niswî. At close of play, England were 305 for 3.

  25. ⛔ Used in various more-or-less idiomatic ways to construe individual verbs, indicating various semantic relationships such as target, purpose, result, etc.; see also the entries for individual phrasal verbs, e.g. ask for, look for, stand for, etc.

    xe li êo wuktomû ôlê boxô fos umo li sî gô hoî to account for one's whereabouts

    xe dîyondê umo lîtiwe to care for a relative

    xe wofok xôn môî dûî to settle for second best

    xe cûlosun foût to allow for mistakes

  26. ✅ (nonstandard) So (that), in order to

    nîo gomî sî wokût kon wêloi xe gitno lono ûn bitûn, oxon fos nîo kôî dôstoc eswen wokût odigon. He took the swing shift for he could get more overtime.

When oxon is used with the negatitive particle yôk, it means that the marked noun phrase is either excluded from being the beneficiary/purpose of the committed act of the predicate or that the act itself was committed but with a beneficiary/purpose that is something other than the marked noun phrase.

Cause​

The nênko particle precedes this noun phrase.

This role is used for noun phrases that represent what caused the action to occur or a past reason that led to the action. Not to be confused with the causer of the action (û), this NP would represent a broader sense including what caused the causer. In English, this represents some of the senses of the word "because".

When used with the negatitive particle yôk, it means that the marked noun phrase is either excluded from being the cause of the committed act of the predicate or that the act itself was committed but with a cause that is something other than the marked noun phrase. In English, this represents some of the senses of the word "despite".

Collaborator​

The ofek particle precedes this noun phrase.

This role is used for noun phrases that represent a fellow actor that is also engaged in the same action as the subject. However, the NP is not considered a subject of the sentence. In English, this represents some of the senses of the word "with".

When used with the negatitive particle yôk, it means that the marked noun phrase is either excluded from participating in the committed act of the predicate or that the act itself was committed but with a participant that is something other than the marked noun phrase. In English, this represents some of the senses of the word "without".

Context or Condition​

The hôn particle precedes this noun phrase.

This role is used for noun phrases that represent an overarching topic, contextual detail, or a condition for the underlying sentence. In English, this represents some of the senses of the words "regarding", "given", "as for", and "when".

noyo yûnyoû sôlû hôn zuwobû ilik. "I have a question regarding your earlier answers."

Also, when you would like to utilize an adjective complement to complete the meaning of a subject complete (li), you would place the complement in a hôn NP.

noyo li xowosê hôn fos nîmû kôto sî ulyô. "I am happy that you said that"

When used with the negatitive particle yôk, it means that the marked noun phrase is either excluded from being the topic or context of the committed act of the predicate or that the act itself was committed but with a topic/context that is something other than the marked noun phrase. In English, this represents some of the senses of the word "regardless".

umo Depôlo mokon sî ûnfûnô nomû hôn yôk longi ni. "Deborah ate the broccoli regardless its color."

Counter-Agent​

The dên particle precedes this noun phrase.

This role is used for noun phrases that either represent a special kind of goal/agent for verbs that indicates an opposing agent for verbs that indicate an action that is oppositional (where both sides are engaging in an opposing action). In English, this represents some of the senses of the word "against".

ni li tûu mêdûson hôn xe oûtô bi xîmu tô woyû dên bono woyû. "It is hard work to sail against the wind."

nîmû dên fôlnî yê gôcîdon ko. "Are you against freedom of choice?"

When used with the negatitive particle yôk, it means that the marked noun phrase is either excluded from being the counter-agent of the committed act of the predicate or that the act itself was committed but with a counter-agent that is something other than the marked noun phrase.

Evidence​

The oldis particle precedes this noun phrase.

This role is used for noun phrases that represent proof or an information source that the specified action is known or believed to have occurred, is occurring, or will occur. In English, this represents some of the senses of the phrases "or so", "per", and "according to".

hoî môtô ilik onô û nîo li sî tônkô môtô oldis fos dîzel kôto. He was burned in the fire or so they say.

oldis yôcno kon kôson û foko ûnîdû bilît dî ûlgûkîn hoî dûî dus nonkû suhot. According to the directions, the glue takes 24 hours to dry.

When used with the negatitive particle yôk, it means that the marked noun phrase is either excluded from being the proof/source of the committed act of the predicate or that the act itself was committed but with proof or a source that is something other than the marked noun phrase.

Distance or Duration​

The lon particle precedes this noun phrase.

This role is used for noun phrases that represent the time or space that the action occurs within. This role is related to the location/time role but instead of describing a moment or point in time/space, this noun phrase represents a period or length of time/space. In English, this represents some of the senses of the word "for" or "until".

noyo kôî dêko lon yoûtî ônî kut cênbô yê mônbili. "I can see for kilometres"

nîmû li gô lon ûsên zik. "How old are you?"

nîo kôntêsto tô kôto lon yoûtî lono hôn dôcuî. They argued for days over a toy.

The differences between the distance/duration role and the location/time role

These two roles might at first seem like a trivial distinction given that quantities already contextually indicate that you are referring to distance or duration. You can provide a point in time or space to this preposition and it will be treated like the act had some unknown start time and the end time was either specified by this noun phrase or is reached when the destination specified is reached.

noyo li nô mût gufuyo hoî suhot tukwos yê bitûn xobêk. "I was going to the market at 8 o'clock last night."

noyo li nô mût gufuyo lon suhot tukwos hoî bitûn xobêk. "I was going to the market until 8 o'clock last night."

nîo bi fîkî li nô mût gîto kônyêc lon xe dêko sî gufuyo cûtî yê îskô yê kûôxi nomû mûncû. "He was running to the finish line until he saw the lemonade stand."

nîo bi fîkî li nô mût gîto kônyêc hoî xe dêko sî gufuyo cûtî yê îskô yê kûôxi nomû mûncû. "He was running to the finish line at the time he saw the lemonade stand."

To better understand why it's necessary to distinguish this from location/time, it might be useful to see the semantic relationship of four of the thematic roles:

  • The source/origin role represents a true source/origin, sometimes contextually distant/ from the action or state.
  • The location/time role represents the source/origin of just the act or state described in the sentence.
  • The destination/recipient role represents a true destination/recipient, sometimes contextually distant/removed from the action or state.
  • The distance/duration role represents the destination/recipient of just the act or state described in the sentence.

Of course, we are using the term "recipient" loosely here. The only time an animate entity would be provided as a noun phrase to a distance/duration preposition would be if that entity related to a specific moment or location upon the path or duration of the action or state at which point it ceases.

noyo hoî ôhêl tuluti tô oûtô gîsgûl noyo mût fenûo Kolifôlnyo lon umo Sêlo. "I was riding my bike to California until Sarah."

When used with the negatitive particle yôk, it means that the marked noun phrase is either excluded from being the distance or duration of the committed act of the predicate or that the act itself was committed but with a duration or distance that is something other than the marked noun phrase.

Intermediate​

The gitno particle precedes this noun phrase.

This role is used for a noun phrase that represents either:

  • an entity that the action or state is in the midst of,
  • an entity that the action or state was in the midst of but is now on the other side, or
  • a conjunction of two noun phrases that represent two boundaries in time or space that the action occurs between.

In English, this represents some senses of the word "between" or "through".

noyo kôî mokon wutun hôfezî xe gitno bîek wutun. "I could eat a hamburger."

nûs kûu tuluti gitno tohilôk pûmi onô oxon xe bucono wokût. "We should go through the mountains to save time."

nîmû kôî dêko oûtô onô gitno kûmun obokî zonûbî onô ko. "Can you see the car through the south window?"

gitno nîmû ûn noyo û hîskûnco in kôson Hîsyêô li xôn môî "Between you and me, Hîsyêô is the best conlang."

When used with the negatitive particle yôk, it means that the marked noun phrase is either excluded from being the intermediary entity of the committed act of the predicate or that the act itself was committed but with an intermediary that is something other than the marked noun phrase.

Similative​

The misli particle precedes this noun phrase.

This role is used for a NP that represents something that the action or state of the predicate resembles or is a likeness of. It can also be used to introduce a simile. In English, this represents some of the senses of the words "like" and "as". When used with a subordinate clause, it can also represent the English phrase "as if".

xoînbo dêko û loi misli siskin loi. "He looks like his brother."

sî tûu cô kûnhîun lôc û umo moskûl nokdo misli xe ke zîgîl. "The old man stumbled, as if he were about to fall."

golfon onô fos noyo oncêmon ni cihôû xe dêko non foko ôsôlê yê kônyêc wêxôn fêlcîn misli yôk ozûul fin fos noyo oncêmon sî hoî ôhêl. The disgust I felt after watching last weekend's horror movie was unlike anything I had felt before.

umo Kiloûdîo bi xûnyu cokyen îskô fin cûbû misli yôk umo Filit fos poxô kon îskô cûbû bi cokyen li niwos dûî yê. Claudia hardly ever drinks beer or wine, unlike Phillip, for whom the bar is practically a second home.

xe li mûun, misli yôk nîo Being late is unlike him.

When used with the negatitive particle yôk, it means that the marked noun phrase is not a likeness of the action or state of the predicate. In English, the word "unlike" would be an equivalent.

misli yôk nîmû li yôk ônî cifulo yê xôn êto û noyo. "Unlike you, I'm not a great dancer."

Genitive​

The yê particle precedes this noun phrase. There is a key syntactic difference from the other preposition phrases. For noun phrases with a genitive role, they appear directly after another noun phrase, they are not free-standing constituents of the sentence.

This role is used for a noun phrase that is either:

  • an attribute
  • a possessor, or
  • has some other relationship

to the preceding noun. In English, this represents some of the senses of the word "of".

nîo bi xoînbo li fonmot yê kon oncêmon umo. "He seemed devoid of human feelings."

bêmon in cukto onô kôî dî nîltûgu hoî ozûul wokût tô bêmon yê môî dûî zomo. "The contract can be terminated at any time with the agreement of both parties."

Genitive Relationships

Using a genitive preposition phrase can create many different relationships between two noun phrases. What these relationships are differs depending on the context and the words chosen.

Below are a multitude of interesting genitive relationships from around the world. Not every example is directly translatable into English using the aforemented "of". Often English makes use of alternative prepositions like "with", "by", and "for", whereas Hîsyêô only has those kinds of prepositions attached to a predicate of a sentence (linked to the verb of the sentence).

However, equipped with the simple yê preposition, context, and supporting word choices, you can effectively communicate all of these genitive relations. If your interlocutor still does not understand, you can make use of clarifying words to achieve the specific meaning you were after.

Descriptive Genitive - Specifies some detail of the preceding phrase. "described by" or "characterized by" are equivalent English expressions. This is a catch-all genitive for when the attribution is ambiguous.

tômôs yê ocûo hûnsik "book characterized by a red cover" (lit. book of red skin)

If you need to explain that the book has a red skin instead of being about red skin, you can clarify that the genitive relationship is descriptive by using êtsô:

tômôs yê êtsô yê ocûo hûnsik  (lit. book of a state of red skin)

Possessive Genitive - Specifies the preceding phrase as being owned or possessed by the attached genitive phrase. "belonging to" or "possessed by" are English equivalents.

cîkînîl yê zonwul "ear belonging to an animal" (lit. ear of animal)

You can clarify that a genitive relationship is possessive by using yûnyoû:

cîkînîl yê yûnyoû yê zonwul (lit. ear of possession of animal)

Familial Genitive - Specifies the preceding phrase as having a familial relationship with the attached genitive phrase. "related to" is an equivalent English expression. This is considered a subset of Possessive Genitive.

motûo yê motûo noyo "mother related to my mother" (lit. mother of my mother)

You can clarify a genitive relationship is familial by using lîtiwe:

motûo yê lîtiwe yê motûo noyo (lit. mother of relation of my mother)

Partitive Genitive - Specifies the preceding phrase as being part of some larger whole or set. "Which is part of" is an equivalent expression in English. Sometimes the preceding phrase only contains a quantity word or yogô.

yoûtî yê mokon onô "some which is part of the food" (lit. some of the food)

yogô kut yê dûî "first part which is part of two" (lit. first part of two)

You can clarify a genitive relationship is partitive by using yogô:

yoûtî (yê) yogô yê mokon (lit. some of parts of food)

Attributive Genitive - Specifies the attached genitive phrase as being an attribute or innate quality of the preceding phrase. Semantically similar to regular modifier usage but more emphatic in its attribution.

îlê yê kôdus "sacred building" (lit. building of sacredness)

You can clarify a genitive relationship is attributive by using dî alone or yûnyoû and dî:

îlê yê yûnyoû yê dî kôdus (lit. building of possession of sacred trait)

Attributed Genitive - Specifies the preceding phrase as being an attribute or innate quality of the attached genitive phrase. "attributed to" or "is an attribute of" are equivalent English expressions. The opposite of Attributive Genitive. The preceding phrase must be a concept that can be considered an attribute and the attached genitive phrase must be a thing that can be attributed (and specifically can be attributed the thing that is the preceding phrase).

hîyôlî yê oksûn "weakness attributed to muscles" (lit. weakness of muscles)

xowosê onô yê boxô kon wêloi xôn. "the happiness attributed to a good work place" (lit. the happiness of a good working place)

You could clarify this genitive relationship using lîtiwe although some directional ambiguity would remain:

hîyôlî yê lîtiwe yê oksûn (lit. weakness of relation of muscles)

You could clarify this genitive relationship using dî although some directional ambiguity would remain:

hîyôlî yê dî yê oksûn (lit. weakness of a trait of muscles)

You could also try clarifying that even further using lîmîen:

hîyôlî yê dî lîmîen yê oksûn (lit. weakness of an inner trait of muscles)

Genitive of Material - Specifies the preceding phrase as being made of a material. "made out of" or "consisting of" are equivalent English expressions.

oûtô yê nomû otôs "vehicle made out of hard wood" (lit. vehicle of hard wood)

You can clarify a genitive relationship is material by using kûsowî:

oûtô yê kûsowî yê nomû otôs (lit. vehicle of material of hard wood)

Genitive of Content - Specifies the preceding phrase as containing within itself the attached genitive phrase. "full of" or "containing" or equivalent English expressions. Similar to the Material Genitive but the contents are a separate entity from the material of the container.

zomo xîmu yê mîcîn "lake containing fish" (lit. water body of fish)

You can clarify a genitive relationship is content by using yûnyoû lîmîen:

zomo xîmu yê yûnyoû lîmîen yê mîcîn (lit. water body of inner possession of fish)

You can also clarify this relationship with môtowo:

zomo xîmu yê môtowo yê mîcîn (lit. water body of content of fish)

Epexegetical Genitive - Specifies the attached genitive phrase as being another separate way to explain the preceding phrase. "which is", "that is", "namely", "who is" are equivalent English expressions.

cûdo yê mokon "gift which is food" (lit. gift of food)

You can clarify this genitive relationship by using a subordinate clause and a copula instead of a genitive phrase:

umo Olis xe li sûtûô yê noyo "Alice, which is a friend of mine" (lit. person Alice which is a friend of me)

Genitive of Destination/Purpose - Specifies the destination or purpose that the preceding phrase is leading to. "for the purpose of", "destined for", "towards", "into" are equivalent English expressions.

tômôs yê umo xonluk "children's books" (lit. books of young people)

You can clarify this genitive relationship by using a subordinate clause with an inner oxon preposition:

tômôs xe (li gô) oxon umo xonluk (lit. books that are (existing) for young people)

Genitive of Production - Specifies that the preceding phrase is made by the attached genitive phrase. "produced by" is an equivalent English expression.

wôlik yê mokon tût "steam produced by the hot food" (lit. smoke/cloud of hot food)

You can clarify that a genitive relationship is production by using oxon:

wôlik yê kôs yê mokon tût (lit. smoke/cloud of result of hot food)

Genitive of Product - Specifies that the preceding phrase is a producer of the attached genitive phrase. "which produces" is an equivalent English expression.

non yê ôsôlê "movie which produces fear" (lit. movie/show of afraidness)

You can clarify that a genitive relationship is a product by using ônî or foko:

non yê ônî kôs yê ôsôlê (lit. movie/show of causer of afraidness)

non yê foko ôsôlê (lit. movie/show of afraid-ifyer)

In fact, the first one using ônî still requires the second yê because otherwise it would mean "an afraid causer" which is not the intending meaning. The second one, however, does not require either yê because of its coupling nature.

non foko ôsôlê (lit. movie/show of afraid-ifyer)

Genitive of Separation - Specifies that the preceding phrase is separate from the attached genitive phrase. "out of", "away from" ,or simply "from" are equivalent English expressions.

mônbili mônbili yê nîo "far from them" (lit. far distance of them)

fonmot yê gos hônyo "clear from wild plants" (lit. absence of wild plants)

You can clarify that a genitive relationship is separation by using a subordinate clause with dî and sûn:

fonmot fos sûn gos hônyo dî "clear from wild plants" (lit. absence which from wild plants is becoming)

Genitive of Source - Specifies the origin of the preceding phrase. "out of", "derived from", "dependent on" are equivalent English expressions. This genitive can often be bettered expressed using the sun thematic role marker.

îskô cûbû nexê yê fenûo Xonpên  "wine out of Champagne" (lit. intoxicated fermented drink of region Champagne)

nomû yê îlê nokdo onô "wood derived from the old building" (lit. wood of old building)

You can clarify that a genitive relationship is Source by using a subordinate clause with gô and sûn:

nomû xe (li gô) sûn îlê nokdo onô (lit. wood that is from old building)

Genitive of Price/Value - Specifies the price or value of the preceding phrase. "for", "worth" are an equivalent English expressions. The attached genitive phrase must contain concepts of money, value or amount.

mokon sûît yê dûî munî "candy for two dollars" (lit. sweet food of two monies)

niswî kûdu yê dus yônê "three horses worth ten goats" (lit. three horses of ten goats)

You can clarify that a genitive relationship is Price/Value by using wîlûwo:

niswî kûdu yê wîlûwo yê dus yônê "three horses worth ten goats" (lit. three horses of ten goats)

Genitive of Time - Specifies the time or duration of the preceding phrase. "during", "at", "within", "for" are equivalent English expressions. The attached genitive phrase must contain concepts of time or duration.

tûu yê tukwos suhot "work for eight hours" (lit. action of eight hours)

wokût kon mokon yê suhot xêtî "breakfast at seven o'clock" (lit. eating time of the seventh hour)

nô yê bitûn "movement during the night" (lit. movement of night)

You can clarify that a genitive relationship is Time by using wokût:

tûu yê wokût yê tukwos suhot "work for eight hours" (lit. action of time of eight hours)

You can also clarify this relationship using a subordinate clause and the preposition hoî:

nô xe (li gô) hoî bitûn "movement during the night" (lit. movement which is at night)

Genitive of Place - Specifies a vague local relation to the preceding phrase. "in", "at", "through", "over" are equivalent English expressions. The attached genitive phrase must contain concepts of location. Often uses the words opotu or sekano.

niwos yê hônyo niwa je honja "cabin in the woods" (lit. residence of the wilderness)

kon tuluti noyo yê fenûo onô yê bîômu nubuso. "my travels through the marsh" (lit. my traversings of the region of wet biome)

You can clarify that a genitive relationship is Place by using boxô:

niwos yê boxô yê hônyo (lit. residence of place of wilderness)

You can also clarify this relationship using a subordinate clause and hoî:

niwos xe (li gô) hoî hônyo (lit. residence which is (existing) at the wilderness)

Genitive of Means - Specifies the instrument or means of the preceding phrase. "by", "by means of" are equivalent English expressions. This genitive can often be better expressed using the wija thematic role marker.

bîlûs yê tûu mêdûson "achievement by hard work" (lit. victory of laborious work)

You can clarify this relationship using a subordinate clause and tô:

bîlûs xe (li gô) tô tûu mêdûson (lit. victory which is (existing) by means of laborious work)

Genitive of Agency - Specifies the agent that is engaged with the preceding phrase. "by", "by means of" are equivalent English expressions. The attached genitive phrase must contain a person or other active entity to be seen as this type of genitive and often can be easily misconstrued as a Possessive Genitive.

oklumun yê hôktun cênbô nêlô "attack by means of a black bear" (lit. attack of a black large mammal)

You can clarify this relationship using a subordinate clause and tô:

oklumun xe (li gô) tô hôktun cênbô nêlô tun takaha je te wija hoton cenpo nelo (lit. attack which is by means of black large mammal)

Genitive of Reference - Specifies a reference entity that helps better explain the preceding phrase. "with reference to" or "with respect to" are equivalent English expressions. This genitive can often be bettered expressed using the so thematic role marker.

eswen wokût yê tûu kon bêûdo noyo "more time with respect to my studies" (lit. more time of my learning work)

You can clarify this relationship using the connector en instead of a genitive phrase:

eswen wokût kon bêûdo en wokût yê tûu dîzel (lit. more studying time than time of other work)

Subjective Genitive - Specifies or describes the subject of the preceding phrase when the preceding phrase is a verb phrase or a noun phrase that contains an action. This genitive can always be converted into a sentence where the genitive noun phrase is the subject of the action. Some constructions could either be subjective or objective genitive but context can help identify the appropriate type.

kôto yê ônî hobîyô onô "speech of the announcer"

nô yê hôktun xômûtlô cênbô "movement of whales" (lit. movement of big sea mammals)

You can also represent this genitive relationship by replacing the whole relation with a subordinate noun clause:

fos hôktun xômûtlô cênbô li nô, li kûzoû "movement of whales is awesome" (lit. that big sea mammals are moving, is awesome)

You can also clarify this genitive relationship with kôs:

nô yê kôs yê hôktun xômûtlô cênbô "movement of whales" (lit. movement of result of big sea mammals)

Objective Genitive - Specifies or describes the object of the preceding phrase when the preceding phrase is a transitive verb phrase or a noun phrase that contains a transitive action. "for", "about", "concerning", "towards", "against" are English equivalent expressions. This genitive can always be converted into a sentence where the genitive noun phrase is the object of the action.

kôto nûs yê mocko "our conversation about cats" (lit. our speech of cats)

kelo yê fos sinsî noyo (li gô) dên sinsî dîzel onô "a game of my city against the other city" (lit. game of which my city (is) against another city)

You can clarify this genitive relationship by replacing the whole relation with a subordinate noun clause while describing the object (and kôs can be used to intepret "about" more appropriately):

nûs kôto sî sin yê selôhô yê mocko (lit. we said things of a topic of cats)

sinsî noyo kelo sî dên sinsî dîzel (lit. my city played against another city)

Plenary Genitive - Specifies or describes the subject and object of the preceding phrase when the preceding phrase is a verb phrase or a noun phrase that contains an action. Both subjective and objective genitive forms fit and the meanings should not contract but instead complement each other.

kon yûbik yê ôcôto "love of God" (lit. loving of God)

You can clarify this genitive relationship by replacing the whole relation with a subordinate noun clause and xokôn dîzel:

noyo ûn ôcôto yûbik xokôn dîzel. (lit. I and God love each other)

The genitive particle isn't used with the negatitive particle yôk because it's meant to describe nouns through associating other nouns and there's already an existing way to describe zero nouns (xûnyu). You can achieve a similar kind of negative association by using a relative clause.

From...​

Converting from the other content types into nouns.

Verbs​

When a verb acts as a noun, it represents an archetypal object that has or will be involved in the happening of that verb action. Like the suffix "-ed" in English but also there are many concrete terms that English has to refer to these entities already. There are four ways that verbs can be expressed as nouns.

Direct/Thematic Objects​

When a verb is provided as a thematic object, it represents the archetypal object/patient/theme of that verb. This can be after verbs (direct objects) or after prepositions (thematic objects). In this position, they are the nucleus of a noun phrase.

nîmû ke côûfon mokon xe gitno bîek, ko. "Will you make me a sandwich?" (lit. You will cook food that is between bread, yes?)

mokon is being used as direct obect noun of the action "to cook". The thing that we cook (the position of the direct object) is called a "meal" and the thing that we eat is known as "food". Here, the "meal" is quite simply "food" in [apposition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apposition).

Genitive Phrases​

A verb can act as a noun when connected to a noun phrase using the yê particle.

mût noyo kûu okôt dibo ôfo yê conwêbo. "Bring me that box of goods."

kûu wêko yogô onô hoî dibo yê kelo et onô. "Put the pieces in the game box."

Abstract Nouns​

There is a special coupling particle (kon) that can convert verbs directly after it into a noun with abstract connotations that can be translated into English as "matters of" or "acts of". This form is often used as the equivalent of simple gerunds where there's no additional thematic context needed.

tîmîok kon wêtodû yê towê wîk pipôk "bald eagle" (lit. hunting bird of white head feathers)

ôntôn zûngô kon kelo yê kon doîcêl gundolê "baseball glove" (lit. playing hand glove of ball catching)

Agentive Nouns​

There are two more particles that can convert verbs into nouns and they are both agentive in nature. This means that the final coupled noun is considered an agent of some action or state. For the first particle (ônî), the entity is a directly engaged in the action or experiencing the state. For the second particle (foko), the agent is causing something else to engage in the action or experience the state.

foko mefûs wowoê yê kon nô fîkî "running shoes"(lit. foot safe-causer of fast moving)

ônî nô fîkî "runner"(lit. fast mover)

fecko foko hûnsik "red paint"(lit. red-causer liquid)

ônî wêko yê fecko foko longi "painter"(lit. placer of color-causer liquid)

Modifiers​

When a modifier acts as a noun, it means an uncountable quality and/or degree of being a given state. Like the affix "-ness" in English. One way of making a noun out of a modifier is to provide it as the nucleus of a verb or a preposition phrase. Verbs and preposition particles always take the word is immediately following it as a noun derivation of that word and it is the nucleus of the preposition phrase (as long as it's a content word, other prepositions can cause argument to be skipped).

wôlik nêlô kôs kûyô "Black clouds cause sadness."

Just like with verbs you can create a genitive phrase by preceding the modifier with the yê particle. This particle means that the modifier word that immediately following it is taken as the noun derivation of that word.

This is especially useful for the typical reason that genitive phrases are useful: it allows you to describe a quality with some modifiers of its own. One of the most common usages is when adding a degree to a modifier:

tôxûtsi bûmî yê iwotê êto "very tall mountain"

Since Hîsyêô has less than 900 words, using genitive phrases with modifiers allows you to create more complex phrases that would require several sentences to formulate otherwise. In fact, modifiers can also be used with kon, ônî, and foko to make modifier-based abstract and agentive nouns.

foko lîûlê yê ênkômôn longi et kûyô "a sad clown"

kolowu kon xobo foko dês tônkô "non-violent martial arts"

Noun Clauses​

A noun can be concrete or abstract, it doesn't have to be some physical entity or even a finite state. It can be a process or really anything that you might want to refer to and use as a subject or object of a sentence. In Hîsyêô, you can create these complex nouns by building sentences within a subordinate clause called a Noun Clause. In order to create one of these clauses, you must start with a particle. There are two special words available that can be used to introduce a noun clause:

  1. xe - Use this one for infinitives and gerunds
  2. fos - Use this one for complete inner sentences and indirect questions

After this particle, you start your sentence. In the infinitive/gerund form, you do not provide an agent/experiencer (subject) of the sentence because this is the nature of how infinitives are used: a noun that refers to the meaning expressed by the inner sentence but referred holisitically as an object in the outer sentence.

li êo golfon ôlê noyo û xe côûfon mîcîn. "Cooking fish makes me disgusted."

xe golo, li xôn oxon umo xonluk. "Reading is good for kids."

Beware the similarity between gerunds and the abstract particle

While these noun clause gerunds are very useful, you must be careful to discern the distinction of meaning between the gerund usage of a noun clause leading particle and the abstract particle preceding a content word. The abstract form should be thought of as "acts of" or "matters of" which should be seen as more of a loose relationship than using a noun clause as a gerund. "acts/matters of eating meat" means something different from "eating meat".

noyo toûyen xe mokon oksûn.

noyo toûyen kon mokon oksûn.

The first sentence implies that the speaker hates specifically the act of eating meat whereas the second sentence implies that the speaker hates matters of meat eating altogether which broadens the hate to anything related to the act or its part in human life or otherwise.

The other form of noun phrase (introduced by fos) includes a subject or if one is not provided then, like a normal sentence, it should be intepreted as dropped or subjectless ("there is" or "it is") depending on the predicate that is provided. This form of noun phrase is useful when you need to introduce a clause that changes (or removes) the subject from the underlying sentence. Some verbs primarily are used with some form of noun clause as their object and this form allows for a complete sentence to be included as that object.

noyo fôlun fos nîmû fôlun noyo "I want you to want me"

noyo xîwon fos li suhot tîû "I wish that it was 5 o'clock"

English indirect object

The English sentence in the translation above "I want you to want me" is using an indirect object of "you" and an direct object infinitive phrase of "to want me". This might seem like the wrong translation since there is a preposition that Hîsyêô typically uses for indirect objects. This is just an example of some of the irregular English grammar around the use of the verb "to want". In Hîsyêô, the best approach is to use a finite noun phrase where the indirect object of the English sentence is now the subject of the inner noun clause.

Thematic Noun Clauses​

When you use a subordinate clause as the nucleus of a thematic relation phrase, it often takes on a special meaning due to the combination of a thematic role and the non-concrete nature of subordinate clauses. Here's a list of the different interpretations:

Manner/Material: Accusative Relative Clause​

Possibly the most unique of the bunch, due to the fact that this thematic relation is normally used for describing the action directly. When the manner/material thematic role is applied to a noun clause, it amends the description of the direct object as a relative clause.

bi fos bi ubênus wuîtsî xe ogolol, noyo lunsol sî gundolê nubuso yê zomo onô bi len sumon en fos noyo kôî tûu. "Barely keeping a grip on it, I throw the dog's wet ball as hard as I can."

bi fos unon îskô cûbû ûn bîek sûn, nûs dênêmêk xe yosten gufuyo kon îskô onô hoî sinsî cûtî onô. "Smelling of beer and bread, we searched the small town for the local tavern."

bi xe sityo hoî môtô onô, li zowo xe tô hokôlî ogolol sî siskin wohî nîmû. "Sitting by the fire was the dog that bit your sister."

Why the shift in meaning

It might seem like this should just describe the manner since that's what this thematic relation is for. But, it isn't used for that in this case because the primary sentence structure is already the place where all simultaneous predicates exist. That is to say, if you are describing the action by further utilizing another verb (and you are thinking about using a subordinate clause), you can place this verb as another predicate within the main sentence body instead of using a thematic relation marker. This frees up this marker (when supplied with a subordinate clause) to be used for describing the direct object. Syntactically, this is the only valid preposition that can take a relative clause. Given that this marker is the only one that applies the supplied noun phrase adverbially, it follows that any subordinate clause should be interpreted as being related to the nucleus of the direct object.

Instrument/Means: Nominal Subordinate Clause​

When the instrument/means thematic role is applied to a noun clause, it does not have a special interpretation because there are already reasonable situations where an instrument or means could be described using a subordinate clause.

Location/Time: Iterative Condition Subordinate Clause​

When the location/time thematic role is applied to a noun clause, it has a special interpretation because there's no valid situation where a location or a time could be a full predicate. Just like the other thematic roles, the usage of this thematic relation with a subordinate clause is still meant to be semantically relevant. Thus, the meaning is taken as an iterative condition which in English can be interepreted as a clause prefaced by "whenever".

Direction/Destination: Terminative Condition Subordinate Clause​

When the direction/destination thematic role is applied to a noun clause, it has a special interpretation because there's no valid situation where a direction or a destination could be a full predicate. Just like the other thematic roles, the usage of this thematic relation with a subordinate clause is still meant to be semantically relevant. Thus, the meaning is taken as a terminative condition which in English can be interepreted as a clause prefaced by "until".

Source/Origin: Inchoative Condition Subordinate Clause​

When the source/origin thematic role is applied to a noun clause, it has a special interpretation because there's no valid situation where a source or an origin could be a full predicate. Just like the other thematic roles, the usage of this thematic relation with a subordinate clause is still meant to be semantically relevant. Thus, the meaning is taken as a inchoative condition which in English can be interepreted as a clause prefaced by "since".

Beneficiary/Purpose: Nominal Subordinate Clause​

When the beneficiary/purpose thematic role is applied to a noun clause, it does not have a special interpretation because there are already reasonable situations where a beneficiary or purpose could be described using a subordinate clause.

Cause: Nominal Subordinate Clause​

When the cause thematic role is applied to a noun clause, it does not have a special interpretation because there are already reasonable situations where a cause could be described using a subordinate clause.

Collaborator: Nominal Subordinate Clause​

When the collaborator thematic role is applied to a noun clause, it does not have a special interpretation because there are already reasonable situations where a collaborator could be described using a subordinate clause.

Context/Condition: Nominal Subordinate Clause​

When the collaborator thematic role is applied to a noun clause, it does not have a special interpretation because there are already reasonable situations where context or a condition could be described using a subordinate clause.

Counter-Agent: Nominal Subordinate Clause​

When the counter-agent thematic role is applied to a noun clause, it does not have a special interpretation because there are already reasonable situations where a counter-agent could be described using a subordinate clause.

Evidence: Nominal Subordinate Clause​

When the evidence thematic role is applied to a noun clause, it does not have a special interpretation because there are already reasonable situations where a evidence could be described using a subordinate clause.

Distance/Duration: Durative Condition Subordinate Clause​

When the distance/duration thematic role is applied to a noun clause, it has a special interpretation because there's no valid situation where a distance or a duration could be a full predicate. Just like the other thematic roles, the usage of this thematic relation with a subordinate clause is still meant to be semantically relevant. Thus, the meaning is taken as a continuative condition which in English can be interepreted as a clause prefaced by "while" or "during".

Intermediate: Nominal Subordinate Clause​

When the intermediate thematic role is applied to a noun clause, it does not have a special interpretation because there are already reasonable situations where a intermediate could be described using a subordinate clause.

Similative: Comparative Condition Subordinate Clause​

When the similative thematic role is applied to a noun clause, they do reflect normal subordinate clauses but since this thematic relation fits the special similative class, there's a special way to intepret its usage wth noun clauses. The meaning is taken as a comparative condition which in English can be interepreted as a clause prefaced by "as if".

Relative Clauses​

There are other uses of these same clause particles as relative clause introducers and you can learn more about those usages here.