Nouns
A type of word that represents an entity (abstract or concrete). A noun can be a compound of several words using genitive phrases and relative clauses. When a noun is more than one word, it is called a noun phrase. A noun phrases contains a nucleus or head noun and quantifiers are on the left and modifiers are chained to the right. The nearer the modifiers are to the nucleus, the more innate the quality is.
Roles
Each noun phrase within a sentence is preceded by a particle word called a preposition. A preposition cannot be immediately followed by another preposition. If a preposition is immediately after a connector, it indicates a new sentence fragment.
Causer / Voluntary Subject
The û particle precedes this noun phrase. If this is the first noun phrase of a sentence, the particle can be elided (skipped).
During causative sentences, a noun phrase with this role represents the causer. During non-causative sentences, a noun phrase with this role will be the agent or experiencer of the action or state. In linguistics this case is known as the agentive case. Additionally, during non-causative sentences, the marked noun phrase is considered to be making the choice to commit the act or experience the state of the predicate of their own free will.
When used with the negatitive particle yôk, it means that the marked noun phrase is either excluded from being the subject of the committed act of the predicate or that the act itself was committed but by something other than the marked noun phrase.
Causee / Involuntary Subject
The ôlê particle precedes this noun phrase.
During causative sentences, a noun phrase with this role will represent the causee. During non-causative sentences, a noun phrase with this role can be used to represent the agent or experiencer of the action. Unlike the previous particle, the marked noun phrase is not making the choice to commit the act of their own free will. Either they are bound/forced to do so or they do not have the wherewithal to make a conscious choice on the matter and are acting out of some basic instinst. In linguistics, this case is sometimes referred to as the causal-agentive case.
When used with the negatitive particle yôk it has the equivalent semantic interpretation as the voluntary subject particle û.
Patient, Theme, Stimulus (Direct Object)
Any free-standing verb will precede this noun phrase. Between the verb and the noun phrase can exist several verb modifier particles. See Verbs for more details.
The role of this object is for the special thematic argument to transitive verbs. The argument (the direct object) can be broken down into sub-types: a patient, a theme, or a stimulus. In English, this represents some of the senses of the word "to" and "into" (although, many English verbs don't rely on a preposition particle to introduce their direct object).
Unlike the other preposition particles, you can provide a verb without also providing a direct object noun phrase. Simply start another preposition, use a connector to create a compound sentence, use a comma to end a clause or use a period to end a sentence (the only thing you can't do is immediately follow a verb directly with another verb because it will always be perceived as being the direct object of the preceding verb). Not using this noun phrase slot can have an impact on how base verb sentences are interpreted. Without providing a direct object, a base verb is interpreted as being intransitive or in an unthematic and generic manner (since no theme is being provided). That being said, sometimes it's easiest to just think of an implicit ni existing in the direct object slot.
A patient is an entity that undergoes the action and changes state in some manner. A theme is an entiy that undergoes the action but doesn't change state. A stimulus is an entity that prompts or triggers the emotional or sensory action that is being described. These kinds of direct objects aren't separately marked because which kind of object is being specified can be determined from the verb that is being used.
When this noun phrase is preceded by the negatitive particle yôk, it means that the marked noun phrase is either excluded from being the argument of the committed act of the predicate or that the act itself was committed but with a direct object that is something other than the marked noun phrase.
Manner or Material
The bi particle precedes this noun phrase.
This role is used for noun phrases that represent the manner or material of the predicate. In English, this is represented by the use of words with the "-ly" suffix (adverbs) or some senses of the words "by" and "with". In linguistics, this might be seen as a kind of adverbial case but the word "adverbial" is ill-fitting to the grammar of Hîsyêô so the term methodological case is being used instead.
This preposition and the remaining described here can be used with sentences that contain intransitive and transitive verbs and are only needed in certain circumstances when extra thematic information is useful to describing the predicate in a new way. These prepositions are known as true thematic relations. The prepositions above, the subjects (û or ôlê) and direct objects are honorary members of the thematic relation club since they are traditionally referred to as morphosyntactic arguments. They are included in the same class of word as the true thematic relations to simplify the grammatical system. This system is what allows the language to have free constituent ordering.
When used with the negatitive particle yôk, it means that the marked noun phrase is either excluded from being the manner or material of the committed act of the predicate or that the act itself was committed but in a manner that is something other than the marked noun phrase. In English, this represents some of the senses of the word "without".
Instrument or Means
The tô particle precedes this noun phrase.
This role is used for noun phrases that represent some entity that was used to carry out the action. In English, this represents some of the senses of the words "with", "using", "by", and "via". In linguistics, this is known as the instrumental case.
When used with the negatitive particle yôk, it means that the marked noun phrase is either excluded from being the means or instrument of the committed act of the predicate or that the act itself was committed but by means or with an object that is something other than the marked noun phrase. In English, this represents some of the senses of the word "without".
Location or Time
The hoî particle precedes this noun phrase.
This role is used for noun phrases that represent where or when the action occurs. In English, this represents some of the senses of the words "in", "at", and "on". In linguistics, this might be called either a locative or adessive case.
The counterpart of this particle is lon for distance and duration. Unlike the lon particle, when you provide an amount of time to hoî it means the length of time that it took to achieve the task specified in the rest of the predicate.
When used with the negatitive particle yôk, it means that the marked noun phrase is either excluded from being the location or time of the committed act of the predicate or that the act itself was committed but at a location or time that is somewhere other than the marked noun phrase.
Direction or Destination (Indirect Object)
The mût particle precedes this noun phrase.
This role is used for noun phrases that represent where the action is directed towards. In English, this represents some of the senses of the words "to", "into", and "towards". Any time you might need an indrect object or recipient, you can use this preposition to describe that constituent. In linguistics, this is known as the dative case.
When used with the negatitive particle yôk, it means that the marked noun phrase is either excluded from being the recipient of the committed act of the predicate or that the act itself was committed but with recipient that is something other than the marked noun phrase.
Subject Complement
The li particle precedes this noun phrase.
This role is used when the noun is describing the subject (a noun complement), roughly equivalent to "is a [noun]" in English.
Because li is a preposition, if it is used without an explicit subject, it creates an existential statement ("There is [noun]").
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
Source or Origin
The sûn particle precedes this noun phrase.
This role is used for noun phrases that represent where the action originated. In English, this represents nearly all of the senses of the word "from" (except for differentiation and causation). In linguistics, this is sometimes referred to as the ablative case.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
noyo dôstoc lîbû in lufono sûn siskin moskûl noyo. I got a letter from my brother.
nîmû kôî dôstoc yôk fisun nêôs sûn nec ônî tûek nucoto. You can't get all your news from the Internet.
tômôs ôfo sûn dus eson tukwos dus. This manuscript is from the 1980s.
nîo fuî sî tômôs xe hoî zomo mulô sûn sokofû mût deku. He had books piled from floor to ceiling.
nîo li sî cok hoî lono xobêk sûn sinsî Xikogô. He departed yesterday from Chicago.
kûu bono bi elentêt sûn bêlêtê. Face away from the wall!
lono kon wêloi sûn suhot eson mût suhot tîû.The working day runs from 9 am to 5 pm.
kôî wedo til doînbî sûn lono dus xêtî yê wuto xêtî. Tickets are available from 17th July.
dûstu tônkô nîmû sûn kut mût dus. Rate your pain from 1 to 10.
kûu socok xe kôto mîkdol sûn kut. Start counting from 1.
nîmû kôî bêûdo ozûul sûn sôhoûk mût kon cukto. You can study anything from math to literature.
kûu dênêmêk xe dêko ni sûn bindû nîo yê dêko. Try to see it from his point of view.
sûn mulô yê niwos kûon û nîmû bi yoûtî kôî dêko bûmî yê cênbô môî. From the top of the lighthouse you can just see the mainland.
dûî dus sûn niswî dus kut dî ônsu. 20 from 31 leaves 11.
lîbû gelmis yê foko mefûs lono bi môcîbo kôs xe li mefûs sûn lozô yê bînton lono. A parasol protects from the sun's rays.
kôson ni sûn ûlôgun nulun sêlbô sofîn. It's made from pure gold.
ƨɀ ʌ́ıc̄ ʓɟʋʄ ɽ̃ȷ ʓʃɤƨ ɐ̃ʄ ɐ́ȷɔ̃ȷ ƶ́ɔ͊ʄ ƨɀ: I got a letter from my brother.
ƨɟƶʄ ɔıɽɟ ʌ́ıc̄ ɀ̑ı ɤȷɐ̃ʃ ƨʇɽ́ı ɐ̃ʄ ƨ̄ɿ ɽıƨɟ cʄɽ̑ɿ ƨʃꞇc: You can't get all your news from the Internet.
cıƶ́ı ɽıɤ ɐ̃ʄ ʌ́ʃ ɽɿɐ̃ c̑ʃʒ́ ʌ́ʃ: This manuscript is from the 1980s.
ƨɟɽ ɤʃɽɟ ɐɟ cıƶ́ı ɋɿ ɂɽɟ ⱴƶ ƶʃʓi ɐ̃ʄ ɐɔɤʄ ƶ̆ʄ ʌɿɔʃ: He had books piled from floor to ceiling.
ƨɟɽ ʓȷ ɐɟ ꞇ̑ ɂɽɟ ʓƨ ɋʋ̑ʇ ɐ̃ʄ ɐ̃ȷɐɟ ‹ɋȷɔꜿi›: He departed yesterday from Chicago.
ɔʄɽʃ ʋƨ ʋȷ ɽɿʓ̃ɿc̆ʇ ɐ̃ʄ ʋʇʓʇcʇ: Face away from the wall!
ʓƨ ɔ̃ ʒʇʓɽȷ ɐ̃ʄ ɐʃɂ̆ ɽɿɐ̃ ƶ̆ʄ ɐʃɂ̆ cɟɽʄ:The working day runs from 9 am to 5 pm.
ɔıɽɟ ʒɿʌ c͊ȷ ʌɽ̃ɟʋɟ ɐ̃ʄ ʓƨ ʌ́ʃ ɋʇcɟ ɀʇ ʒʃc ɋʇcɟ: Tickets are available from 17th July.
ʌ́ʄcʃ c̃ıɔı ƨɟƶʄ ɐ̃ʄ ɔ̆ʃ ƶ̆ʄ ʌ́ʃ: Rate your pain from 1 to 10.
ɔʄɽʃ ɐꞇ̑ ɋɿ ɔıc ƶ̑ɟʌ͊ ɐ̃ʄ ɔ̆ʃ: Start counting from 1.
ƨɟƶʄ ɔıɽɟ ʋʇɽʄʌ ɽⱴʄɽ͊ʃ ɐ̃ʄ ɐıɂɽ̑ʄ ƶ̆ʄ ɔ̃ ꞇ̑ʃc: You can study anything from math to literature.
ɔʄɽʃ ʌʇƨʇƶ̑ʇ ɋɿ ʌʇɔ ƨȷ ɐ̃ʄ ʋ̃ȷʌʄ ƨɟɽ ɀʇ ʌʇɔ: Try to see it from his point of view.
ɐ̃ʄ ƶʃʓi ɀʇ ƨȷʒ́ ɔʄɽ̃ ɽʄ ƨɟƶʄ ʋȷ ɀɽʄcɟ ɔıɽɟ ʌʇɔ ʋʄƶɟ ɀʇ ꞇ̃ʇʋı ƶıɽɟ: From the top of the lighthouse you can just see the mainland.
ʌʄɽɟ ʌ́ʃ ɐ̃ʄ ƨ́ȷʒɟ ʌ́ʃ ɔ̆ʃ ʌɟ ɽ̃ıɐʃ: 20 from 31 leaves 11.
ʓɟʋʄ ꜿ͊ɿƶ́ȷ ɀʇ ɤɔ ƶɿɤ́ʄ ʓƨ ʋȷ ƶıꞇɟʋ ɔ́ı ɋɿ ʓȷ ƶɿɤ́ʄ ɐ̃ʄ ʓⱴı ɀʇ ʋ̃ɟc̃ ʓƨ: A parasol protects from the sun's rays.
ɔıɐ̃ ƨȷ ɐ̃ʄ ɽʄʓıꜿ̃ʃ ƨʃʓ̃ʃ ɐ͊ʇʋı ɐɤ̃ɟ: It's made from pure gold.
ny doStC libu jN lrfn suN sjSkjN mSkuL ny. I got a letter from my brother.
nimu koi doStC yoK fjsrN neoS suN nqC oni tuqK nrct. You can't get all your news from the Internet.
tomoS of suN drS qsN trKwS drS. This manuscript is from the 1980s.
nia fri si tomoS xq hAi zm mrlo suN skfu muT dqkr. He had books piled from floor to ceiling.
nia lj si cK hAi ln xbeK suN sjNsi 〈 xjkgo 〉. He departed yesterday from Chicago.
kur bn bj qlqNteT suN belete. Face away from the wall!
ln kN welAj suN srhT qsN muT srhT tiu.The working day runs from 9 am to 5 pm.
koi wqd tjL dAiNbi suN ln drS xeti ye wrt xeti. Tickets are available from 17th July.
duStr toNko nimu suN krT muT drS. Rate your pain from 1 to 10.
kur scK xq kot miKdL suN krT. Start counting from 1.
nimu koi beud azurL suN sohAuK muT kN crKt. You can study anything from math to literature.
kur denemeK xq dek nj suN bjNdu nia ye dek. Try to see it from his point of view.
suN mrlo ye njwS kuaN u nimu bj yAuti koi dek bumi ye ceNbo moi. From the top of the lighthouse you can just see the mainland.
dui drS suN njSwi drS krT di oNsr. 20 from 31 leaves 11.
libu gqLmjS ye fk mqfuS ln bj mocib koS xq lj mqfuS suN lzo ye biNtN ln. A parasol protects from the sun's rays.
kosN nj suN ulogrN nrlrN seLbo sfiN. It's made from pure gold.
When used with the negatitive particle yôk, it means that the marked noun phrase is either excluded from being the source or origin of the committed act of the predicate or that the act itself was committed but with a source or origin that is something other than the marked noun phrase.
Beneficiary or Purpose
The til particle precedes this noun phrase.
This role is used for noun phrases that represent for whose benefit the action occurs or the reason for the action. In English, this represents some of the senses of the word "for". In linguistics, this is sometime referred to as the causal-final case.
There are many varying uses of the English word "for" and they don't all line up under til so we've included an in-depth walkthrough of most of the interpretations that are in the wiktionary entry. The translations represent the proper way to formulate the desired semantic meaning.
- ⛔ Towards; in the direction of.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
umo kôsmô li nô mût mûêsî. The astronauts headed for the moon.
kûu li nô bi fîkî mût bûmî tôxûtsi. Run for the hills!
nîo li nô mût zinkon hôn wokût fos nîo bunyentoc sî hoî. He was headed for the door when he remembered.
- ✅ Directed at; intended to belong to.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
- ✅ In order to help, benefit, gratify, honor etc. (someone or something).
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
hôn môî uyo fos noyo tûu, û noyo tûu til nîmû. Everything I do, I do for you.
nûs fuî kôndodû yê lono kon lôzîc til umo Zêenit. We're having a birthday party for Janet.
ônî bôklôn cûdo sî kôto in ondo til kôndodû kon cûdo yôûlî. The mayor gave a speech for the charity gala.
- ✅ Befitting of someone’s beliefs, needs, wants, skills, or tastes; best suited to.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
hôn fos xe wêko mokon hoî zuko bi dûndon, li eswen en fos nîmû kôî tûu, bînê wêloi ôfo til yôk nîmû. If having to bag the groceries correctly is more than you can handle, then this isn't the job for you.
- ✅ To be used or treated in a stated way, or with a stated purpose.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
ôfo li gongoxî ûlôgun nêôs til oûtô gîsgûl noyo. This is a new bell for my bicycle.
bîek sûît onô til kôndodû yê ûsên dizêl yê umo Tomu ûn Helen. The cake is for Tom and Helen's anniversary.
kûôxi ôfo hoî ôfo til xe mokon. dîzel til xe li êo fonmot. These apples here are for eating. The rest are for throwing away.
ɽıɤ ʓȷ ꜿ̃ꜿɋɟ ɽʄʓıꜿ̃ʃ ƨʇɽ́ı c͊ȷ ɽɽʄcı ꜿ́ɟꜿ͊ʄ ƨɀ: This is a new bell for my bicycle.
ʋɟɽ̑ɿ ɐʄʒ̆ɟ ɽƨı c͊ȷ ɔ̃ıʌʌʄ ɀʇ ɽʄɐ̃ʇ ʌȷⱴ͊ʇ ɀʇ ɽʃƶ ‹cƶʃ› ɽ̃ʄ ‹ɂɿʓ̃ɿ›: The cake is for Tom and Helen's anniversary.
ɔʄɽıɋȷ ɽıɤ ɂɽɟ ɽıɤ c͊ȷ ɋɿ ƶɔ̃: ʌɟⱴ͊ɿ c͊ȷ ɋɿ ʓȷ ɽʇɽ ɤ̃ƶ̆: These apples here are for eating. The rest are for throwing away.
of lj gNgxi ulogrN neoS tjL auto giSguL ny. This is a new bell for my bicycle.
biqK suwiT ano tjL koNddu ye useN djzeL ye rm 〈 tmr 〉 uN 〈 hqlqN 〉. The cake is for Tom and Helen's anniversary.
kuoxj of hAi of tjL xq mkN. dizqL tjL xq lj ea fNmT. These apples here are for eating. The rest are for throwing away.
- ✅ Supporting, in favour of. (Antonym: against)
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
noî môî umo xe til bêsnêhot, kûu li êo nô bi mulô ôlê zûngô nîmû. All those for the motion, raise your hands.
zik til mozûn bukû. Who's for ice-cream?
noyo til xe li nô tô oûtô kîskô. I'm for going by train.
dus gôcîdon sî til ûn niswî dên. Ten voted for, and three against. (with implied object)
- ⛔ Because of.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
nîo moskûl bît kôto yôk fos nîo zûtô ni, ûn nênko ulyô û nîo wohî bêmon yôk xe li yôûlî mût nîo moskûl.He wouldn't apologize; and just for that, she refused to help him.
nîo li xoînbo bi dêko bi xôn eswen nênko xe nocîdo sî bûgot. He looks better for having lost weight. (UK usage)
noyo sûko nîo nênko êto môtîfô. I like her for lots of reasons.
ƨɟɽ ƶ́ɔ͊ʄ ʋ̆ɟ ɔıc ɀ̑ı ɤ́ ƨɟɽ ⱴʄcı ƨȷ､ ɽ̃ʄ ƨ̃ʇɔ ɽ͊ʃɀı ɽʄ ƨɟɽ ʒɂɟ ʋʇƶ̃ ɀ̑ı ɋɿ ʓȷ ɀıɽʄʓɟ ƶ̆ʄ ƨɟɽ ƶ́ɔ͊ʄ:He wouldn't apologize; and just for that, she refused to help him.
ƨɟɽ ʓȷ ɋɽ̃ɟʋ ʋȷ ʌʇɔ ʋȷ ɋ̃ı ɽ́ɿʒ̃ɿ ƨ̃ʇɔ ɋɿ ƨꞇɟʌ ɐɟ ʋʄꜿ̆: He looks better for having lost weight. (UK usage)
- ✅ Intended to cure, remove or counteract; in order to cure, remove or counteract.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
cîgîlsu in mokon til hûstun nîmû. This medicine is for your cough.
noyo buswen xe isbulyol nozî hoî niwos til mûxî mîtmo nomû. I need to spray my house for termites.
- ⛔ Over (a period of time).
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
noyo niwos hoî ôfo lon niswî ûsên. I've lived here for three years.
nîo kôntêsto lon yoûtî lono hôn nûyo kon cukto mîtetên. They fought for days over a silly pencil.
- ⛔ Throughout or across (a distance in space).
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
- ⛔ Used to introduce a subject of a to-infinitive clause.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
fos ônî fiyûxît nûs cûdo yôk munî oksîôs nûs, li yôk ûsowo. It is unreasonable for our boss to withhold our wages.
noyo bi tôlkî fôlun fos nîmû li xowosê. All I want is for you to be happy.
- ✅ On behalf of.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
- ⛔ In the role or capacity of; instead of; in place of.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
noyo yôn dîncî yê kudûdo hûlû misli mîêbil kon conzodo. I used a hay bale for a bed.
nîo fuî ûnfûnô zîzîyo misli fos wedo dûuncît nîo til ni. He's got a turnip for a brain.
- ⛔ In exchange for; in correspondence or equivalence with.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
- ✅ In order to obtain or acquire.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
noyo belêxu til mûlû xe hoî kônyêc kûngîyo yê lono cinôbu. I am aiming for completion by the end of business Thursday.
nîo bêûdo til cêo yê mulô êto. He's going for his doctorate.
nîmû fôlun xe li nô til îskô ûlzo ko. xe you want to go for coffee?
umo xe niwos hoî môî boxô yê kûôcyo Elofo, dîyondê sî umo Delfi til zuwobû. People all over Greece looked to Delphi for answers.
nîmû kôî li nô mût gubuyo til yoûtî hûwu ko. Can you go to the store for some eggs?
noyo wêko munî bi sôbo til oûtô. I'm saving up for a car.
ƨɀ ʋɿʓʇɋʃ c͊ȷ ƶʄʓʄ ɋɿ ɂɽɟ ɔ̃ıɀ̄ʇ ɔ̃ʄꜿɟɀ ɀʇ ʓƨ ꞇȷƨıʋʃ: I am aiming for completion by the end of business Thursday.
ƨɟɽ ʋʇɽʄʌ c͊ȷ ꞇʇɽ ɀʇ ƶʃʓi ɽʇc: He's going for his doctorate.
ƨɟƶʄ ɤıʓ̃ʃ ɋɿ ʓȷ ƨı c͊ȷ ɽ́ɟɔı ɽ͊ʄⱴ ɔ: xe you want to go for coffee?
ɽʃƶ ɋɿ ƨȷʒ́ ɂɽɟ ƶıɽɟ ʋɋı ɀʇ ɔʄɽ̄ıɀ ‹ɽɿʓɤ›､ ʌɟɀ̃ʌʇ ɐɟ ɽʃƶ ‹ʌ͊ɿɤȷ› c͊ȷ ⱴʃʒʋʄ: People all over Greece looked to Delphi for answers.
ƨɟƶʄ ɔıɽɟ ʓȷ ƨı ƶ̆ʄ ꜿʃʋʃɀ c͊ȷ ɀɽʄcɟ ɂʄʒʃ ɔ: Can you go to the store for some eggs?
ƨɀ ʒʇɔ ƶʃƨɟ ʋȷ ɐıʋ c͊ȷ ɽɽʄcı: I'm saving up for a car.
ny bqlexr tjL mulu xq hAi koNyeC kuNgiy ye ln cjnobr. I am aiming for completion by the end of business Thursday.
nia beud tjL cea ye mrlo et. He's going for his doctorate.
nimu folrN xq lj no tjL iSko uLz k. xe you want to go for coffee?
rm xq njwS hAi moi bxo ye kuoCy 〈 qlf 〉, diyNde si rm 〈 dqLfj 〉 tjL zrwbu. People all over Greece looked to Delphi for answers.
nimu koi lj no muT grbry tjL yAuti huwr k. Can you go to the store for some eggs?
ny wek mrni bj sob tjL auto. I'm saving up for a car.
- ⛔ By the standards of, usually with the implication that those standards are lower than one might otherwise expect; considering.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
li ûsowo hôn wokût ni. Fair for its day.
nîo li kîôsô hôn umo wohî nokdo. She's spry for an old lady.
nîo li ofînê êto hôn dûî ûsên yê nokdo. He's very mature, for a two-year-old.
- ⛔ To be, or as being.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
- ⛔ (usually in the phrase 'for all') Despite, in spite of.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
- ✅ Indicating something desired or anticipated.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
til nixîn yê tîmîok pipôk. O for the wings of a dove.
til nixîn fos li nô tô nu. Ah! for wings to soar …
hôn îbûdû til côûfon yê cêo kut ze. And now for a slap-up meal!
- ⛔ (in expressions such as 'for a start') Introducing the first item(s) in a potential sequence .
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
tûu kon dodê tô woyû in besol nu. hôn kut uyo û noyo kôî dodê yôk lôîcôk. Go scuba diving? For one thing, I can't even swim.
hôn dîzel û nûs fuî yôk ozûul yôn. For another, we don't have any equipment.
- ✅ (with names, chiefly US) In honor of; after.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
- ⛔ (UK) Due for or facing (a certain outcome or fate).
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
nîo li êo kobût bi mûlû ôlê mêdûson in ondo ulyô. nîo bi îbûdû bono xe nocîdo wêloi nîo lôîcôk. He totally screwed up that project. Now he's surely for the sack.
- ⛔ (chiefly US) Out of; used to indicate a fraction, a ratio
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
- ⛔ (cricket) Used as part of a score to indicate the number of wickets that have fallen.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
- ⛔ Used in various more-or-less idiomatic ways to construe individual verbs, indicating various semantic relationships such as target, purpose, result, etc.; see also the entries for individual phrasal verbs, e.g. ask for, look for, stand for, etc.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
xe li êo wuktomû ôlê boxô fos umo li sî gô hoî to account for one's whereabouts
xe dîyondê umo lîtiwe to care for a relative
- ✅ (nonstandard) So (that), in order to
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
When til is used with the negatitive particle yôk, it means that the marked noun phrase is either excluded from being the beneficiary/purpose of the committed act of the predicate or that the act itself was committed but with a beneficiary/purpose that is something other than the marked noun phrase.
Cause
The nênko particle precedes this noun phrase.
This role is used for noun phrases that represent what caused the action to occur or a past reason that led to the action. Not to be confused with the causer of the action (û), this NP would represent a broader sense including what caused the causer. In English, this represents some of the senses of the word "because".
When used with the negatitive particle yôk, it means that the marked noun phrase is either excluded from being the cause of the committed act of the predicate or that the act itself was committed but with a cause that is something other than the marked noun phrase. In English, this represents some of the senses of the word "despite".
Collaborator
The ofek particle precedes this noun phrase.
This role is used for noun phrases that represent a fellow actor that is also engaged in the same action as the subject. However, the NP is not considered a subject of the sentence. In English, this represents some of the senses of the word "with". In linguistics, this would be seen as the comitative case.
When used with the negatitive particle yôk, it means that the marked noun phrase is either excluded from participating in the committed act of the predicate or that the act itself was committed but with a participant that is something other than the marked noun phrase. In English, this represents some of the senses of the word "without".
Context or Condition
The hôn particle precedes this noun phrase.
This role is used for noun phrases that represent an overarching topic, contextual detail, or a condition for the underlying sentence. In English, this represents some of the senses of the words "regarding", "given", "as for", and "when".
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
Also, when you would like to utilize an adjective complement to complete the meaning of a subject complete (li), you would place the complement in a hôn preposition.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
When used with the negatitive particle yôk, it means that the marked noun phrase is either excluded from being the topic or context of the committed act of the predicate or that the act itself was committed but with a topic/context that is something other than the marked noun phrase. In English, this represents some of the senses of the word "regardless".
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
Counter-Agent
The dên particle precedes this noun phrase.
This role is used for noun phrases that either represent a special kind of goal/agent for verbs that indicates an opposing agent for verbs that indicate an action that is oppositional (where both sides are engaging in an opposing action). In English, this represents some of the senses of the word "against". In linguistis, this is sometimes referred to as the oppositive case.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
ni li tûu mêdûson hôn xe oûtô bi xîmu tô woyû dên bono woyû. "It is hard work to sail against the wind."
nîmû dên fôlnî yê gôcîdon ko. "Are you against freedom of choice?"
When used with the negatitive particle yôk, it means that the marked noun phrase is either excluded from being the counter-agent of the committed act of the predicate or that the act itself was committed but with a counter-agent that is something other than the marked noun phrase.
Evidence
The oldis particle precedes this noun phrase.
This role is used for noun phrases that represent proof or an information source that the specified action is known or believed to have occurred, is occurring, or will occur. In English, this represents some of the senses of the phrases "or so", "per", and "according to". In linguistis, this is referred to as an evidential case.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
hoî môtô ilik onô û nîo li sî tônkô môtô oldis fos dîzel kôto. He was burned in the fire or so they say.
oldis yôcno kon kôson û foko ûnîdû bilît dî ûlgûkîn hoî dûî dus nonkû suhot. According to the directions, the glue takes 24 hours to dry.
When used with the negatitive particle yôk, it means that the marked noun phrase is either excluded from being the proof/source of the committed act of the predicate or that the act itself was committed but with proof or a source that is something other than the marked noun phrase.
Distance or Duration
The lon particle precedes this noun phrase.
This role is used for noun phrases that represent the time or space that the action occurs within. This role is related to the location/time role but instead of describing a moment or point in time/space, this noun phrase represents a period or length of time/space. In English, this represents some of the senses of the word "for" or "until". In linguistis, this is known as a durative case.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
noyo kôî dêko lon yoûtî ônî kut cênbô yê mônbili. "I can see for kilometres"
nîmû li gô lon ûsên zik. "How old are you?"
nîo kôntêsto tô kôto lon yoûtî lono hôn dôcuî. They argued for days over a toy.
These two roles might at first seem like a trivial distinction given that quantities already contextually indicate that you are referring to distance or duration. You can provide a point in time or space to this preposition and it will be treated like the act had some unknown start time and the end time was either specified by this noun phrase or is reached when the destination specified is reached.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
noyo li nô mût gubuyo hoî suhot tukwos yê bitûn xobêk. "I was going to the market at 8 o'clock last night."
noyo li nô mût gubuyo lon suhot tukwos hoî bitûn xobêk. "I was going to the market until 8 o'clock last night."
nîo bi fîkî li nô mût gîto kônyêc lon xe dêko sî gubuyo cûtî yê îskô yê kûôxi nomû mûncû. "He was running to the finish line until he saw the lemonade stand."
nîo bi fîkî li nô mût gîto kônyêc hoî xe dêko sî gubuyo cûtî yê îskô yê kûôxi nomû mûncû. "He was running to the finish line at the time he saw the lemonade stand."
ƨɀ ʓȷ ƨı ƶ̆ʄ ꜿʃʋʃɀ ɂɽɟ ɐʃɂ̆ c̑ʃʒ́ ɀʇ ʋȷc̃ʄ ɋʋ̑ʇ: "I was going to the market at 8 o'clock last night."
ƨɀ ʓȷ ƨı ƶ̆ʄ ꜿʃʋʃɀ ʓ̃ ɐʃɂ̆ c̑ʃʒ́ ɂɽɟ ʋȷc̃ʄ ɋʋ̑ʇ: "I was going to the market until 8 o'clock last night."
ƨɟɽ ʋȷ ɤɟɔɟ ʓȷ ƨı ƶ̆ʄ ꜿɟc ɔ̃ıɀ̄ʇ ʓ̃ ɋɿ ʌʇɔ ɐɟ ꜿʃʋʃɀ ꞇʄcɟ ɀʇ ɽ́ɟɔı ɀʇ ɔʄɽıɋȷ ƨƶʄ ƶ̃ʄꞇʄ: "He was running to the finish line until he saw the lemonade stand."
ƨɟɽ ʋȷ ɤɟɔɟ ʓȷ ƨı ƶ̆ʄ ꜿɟc ɔ̃ıɀ̄ʇ ɂɽɟ ɋɿ ʌʇɔ ɐɟ ꜿʃʋʃɀ ꞇʄcɟ ɀʇ ɽ́ɟɔı ɀʇ ɔʄɽıɋȷ ƨƶʄ ƶ̃ʄꞇʄ: "He was running to the finish line at the time he saw the lemonade stand."
ny lj no muT grbry hAi srhT trKwS ye bjtuN xbeK. "I was going to the market at 8 o'clock last night."
ny lj no muT grbry lN srhT trKwS hAi bjtuN xbeK. "I was going to the market until 8 o'clock last night."
nia bj fiki lj no muT git koNyeC lN xq dek si grbry cuti ye iSko ye kuoxj nmu muNcu. "He was running to the finish line until he saw the lemonade stand."
nia bj fiki lj no muT git koNyeC hAi xq dek si grbry cuti ye iSko ye kuoxj nmu muNcu. "He was running to the finish line at the time he saw the lemonade stand."
To better understand why it's necessary to distinguish this from location/time, it might be useful to see the semantic relationship of four of the thematic roles:
- The source/origin role represents a true source/origin, sometimes contextually distant from the action or state.
- The location/time role represents the source/origin of just the act or state described in the sentence.
- The destination/recipient role represents a true destination/recipient, sometimes contextually distant/removed from the action or state.
- The distance/duration role represents the destination/recipient of just the act or state described in the sentence.
Of course, we are using the term "recipient" loosely here. The only time an animate entity would be provided as a noun phrase to a distance/duration preposition would be if that entity related to a specific moment or location upon the path or duration of the action or state at which point it ceases.
When used with the negatitive particle yôk, it means that the marked noun phrase is either excluded from being the distance or duration of the committed act of the predicate or that the act itself was committed but with a duration or distance that is something other than the marked noun phrase.
Intermediate
The gitno particle precedes this noun phrase. It has a unique role that, in linguistic terms, it can represent an inessive case ("in"); a combination of illative ("into") and elative ("out of") to indicate a kind of perfective journey; a kind of terminative case that specifies two limits, an upper and lower bounds, on an axis of time or space ("from...to") by using a conjunction. Due to the variety of senses of this case, the name intermediative case has been selected instead.
In other words, this role is used for a noun phrase that represents either:
- an entity that the action or state is in the midst of,
- an entity that the action or state was in the midst of but is now on the other side, or
- a conjunction of two noun phrases that represent two boundaries in time or space that the action or state occurs between.
In English, this represents some senses of the words "in", "through", or "between".
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
noyo kôî mokon wutun hôfezî xe gitno bîek wutun. "I could eat a hamburger."
nûs kûu oûtô gitno tohilôk pûmi onô til xe bucono wokût cî. "We should drive through the mountains to save time."
nîmû kôî dêko oûtô onô gitno kûmun obokî zonûbî onô ko. "Can you see the car through the south window?"
hôn fos gitno nîmû ûn noyo, û hîskûnco in kôson Hîsyêô li xôn môî "Between you and me, Hîsyêô is the best conlang."
ƨɀ ɔıɽɟ ƶɔ̃ ʒʃc̃ʃ ɂıɤɿⱴɟ ɋɿ ꜿ̆ȷƨ ʋɟɽ̑ɿ ʒʃc̃ʃ: "I could eat a hamburger."
ƨ́ʄ ɔʄɽʃ ɽɽʄcı ꜿ̆ȷƨ cɂȷʓ̑ı pɽʄƶȷ ɽƨı c͊ȷ ɋɿ ʋʃꞇƨ ʒɔ̆ʄ ꞇɟ: "We should drive through the mountains to save time."
ƨɟƶʄ ɔıɽɟ ʌʇɔ ɽɽʄcı ɽƨı ꜿ̆ȷƨ ɔʄƶ̃ʃ ɽʋɔɟ ⱴƨʄʋɟ ɽƨı ɔ: "Can you see the car through the south window?"
ɂ̃ı ɤ́ ꜿ̆ȷƨ ƨɟƶʄ ɽ̃ʄ ƨɀ､ ɽʄ ɂ́ɟɔ̃ʄꞇ ɽ̃ȷ ɔıɐ̃ ‹ɂ́ɟɀʇɽi› ʓȷ ɋ̃ı ƶıɽɟ "Between you and me, Hîsyêô is the best conlang."
ny koi mkN wrtrN hofqzi xq gjTn biqK wrtrN. "I could eat a hamburger."
nuS kur auto gjTn thjloK pumj ano tjL xq brcn wkuT ci. "We should drive through the mountains to save time."
nimu koi dek auto ano gjTn kumrN abki znubi ano k. "Can you see the car through the south window?"
hoN fS gjTn nimu uN ny, u hiSkuNc jN kosN 〈 hiSyeo 〉 lj xoN moi "Between you and me, Hîsyêô is the best conlang."
When used with the negatitive particle yôk, it means that the marked noun phrase is either excluded from being the intermediary entity of the committed act of the predicate or that the act itself was committed but with an intermediary that is something other than the marked noun phrase.
Antecedent
The ilik particle precedes this noun phrase.
This role is used for a noun phrase that represents something that the action or state of the predicate is preceded by, whether in time or space. In English, this represents some of the senses of the words "before", "prior to", or "in". In linguistics, this is referred to as the antessive case.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
noyo fôlun fos ôfo li mûlû ilik lono dûsul. I want this done before Monday.
nîo li sî totsi ilik noyo He stood before me.
nûs sityo ilik môtô onô til fos li êo tût yoûtî ôlê cizi nûs. We sat before the fire to warm ourselves.
When used with the negatitive particle yôk, it means that the marked noun phrase is either excluded from being the intermediary entity of the committed act of the predicate or that the act itself was committed but with an intermediary that is something other than the marked noun phrase.
Succedent
The cihôû particle precedes this noun phrase.
This role is used for a noun phrase that represents something that the action or state of the predicate is followed by, whether in time or space. In English, this represents some of the senses of the words "after", "post", or "on". In linguistics, this might be considered a kind of temporal or terminative case or perhaps most likely the postessive case.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
noyo fiyûxît nîmû til xe bôklôn bi dîzel cihôû foût fêlcîn nîmû. I'm not putting you in charge again after your last mistake.
cihôû fos nîo uskîfo sûn îlê kûlûnun û nîo kôs fos eswen dûî umo li sî tônkô. After he escaped from prison, he had two additional victims.
nûs cînlî yoûtî îskô cihôû kelo onô. We had a few beers after the game.
noyo mût nîo kôto sî xe li êo bundu ôlê zinkon onô cihôû nîo. I told her to shut the door after her.
ƨɀ ɤȷɀʄɋ̆ɟ ƨɟƶʄ c͊ȷ ɋɿ ʋ̑ıʓ̃ı ʋȷ ʌɟⱴ͊ɿ ꞇȷɂıɽʄ ɤɽ̆ʄ ɤ͊ʇꞇ̃ɟ ƨɟƶʄ: I'm not putting you in charge again after your last mistake.
ꞇȷɂıɽʄ ɤ́ ƨɟɽ ɽ́ʃɔɟɤ ɐ̃ʄ ɽɟʓʇ ɔʄʓʄƨ̃ʃ ɽʄ ƨɟɽ ɔ́ı ɤ́ ɽ́ɿʒ̃ɿ ʌʄɽɟ ɽʃƶ ʓȷ ɐɟ c̃ıɔı: After he escaped from prison, he had two additional victims.
ƨ́ʄ ꞇ̃ɟʓɟ ɀɽʄcɟ ɽ́ɟɔı ꞇȷɂıɽʄ ɔɿʓ ɽƨı: We had a few beers after the game.
ƨɀ ƶ̆ʄ ƨɟɽ ɔıc ɐɟ ɋɿ ʓȷ ɽʇɽ ʋ̃ʃʌʃ ɽıʓʇ ⱴ̃ȷɔ̃ ɽƨı ꞇȷɂıɽʄ ƨɟɽ: I told her to shut the door after her.
ny fjyuxiT nimu tjL xq boKloN bj dizqL cjhou fAuT feLciN nimu. I'm not putting you in charge again after your last mistake.
cjhou fS nia rSkif suN ile kulunrN u nia koS fS qSwqN dui rm lj si toNko. After he escaped from prison, he had two additional victims.
nuS ciNli yAuti iSko cjhou kql ano. We had a few beers after the game.
ny muT nia kot si xq lj ea brNdr ole zjNkN ano cjhou nia. I told her to shut the door after her.
When used with the negatitive particle yôk, it means that the marked noun phrase is either excluded from being the intermediary entity of the committed act of the predicate or that the act itself was committed but with an intermediary that is something other than the marked noun phrase.
Similative
The misli particle precedes this noun phrase.
This role is used for a noun phrase that represents something that the action or state of the predicate resembles or is a likeness of. It can also be used to introduce a simile. In English, this represents some of the senses of the words "like" and "as". When used with a subordinate clause, it can also represent the English phrase "as if". In linguistics, this might be thought of as a kind of essive case. However, there is some concern that this case term accurately reflects the functionality in Hîsyêô. So, the term similative case is used instead.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
xoînbo dêko û loi misli siskin loi. "He looks like his brother."
sî tûu cô kûnhîun lôc û umo moskûl nokdo misli xe ke zîgîl. "The old man stumbled, as if he were about to fall."
golfon onô fos noyo oncêmon ni cihôû xe dêko non foko ôsôlê yê kônyêc wêxôn fêlcîn misli yôk ozûul uyo fos noyo oncêmon sî hoî ôhêl. The disgust I felt after watching last weekend's horror movie was unlike anything I had felt before.
umo Kiloûdîo bi xûnyu cokyen îskô uyo cûbû misli yôk umo Filit fos poxô kon îskô cûbû bi cokyen li niwos dûî yê. Claudia hardly ever drinks beer or wine, unlike Phillip, for whom the bar is practically a second home.
ɋɽ̃ɟʋ ʌʇɔ ɽʄ ʓɽȷ ƶ́ȷʓȷ ɐ́ȷɔ̃ȷ ʓɽȷ: "He looks like his brother."
ɐɟ cʄɽʃ ꞇi ɔ̃ʄɂɟɽ̃ʃ ʓ̄ı ɽʄ ɽʃƶ ƶ́ɔ͊ʄ ƨ̑ʌ ƶ́ȷʓȷ ɋɿ ɔɿ ⱴɟꜿ͊ɟ: "The old man stumbled, as if he were about to fall."
ꜿ͊ɤ̃ ɽƨı ɤ́ ƨɀ ɽ̃ꞇʇƶ̃ ƨȷ ꞇȷɂıɽʄ ɋɿ ʌʇɔ ƨ̃ ɤɔ ɽıɐıʓʇ ɀʇ ɔ̃ıɀ̄ʇ ʒʇɋ̃ı ɤ͊ʇꞇ̃ɟ ƶ́ȷʓȷ ɀ̑ı ɽⱴʄɽ͊ʃ ɽʃɀ ɤ́ ƨɀ ɽ̃ꞇʇƶ̃ ɐɟ ɂɽɟ ɽıɂ͊ʇ: The disgust I felt after watching last weekend's horror movie was unlike anything I had felt before.
ɽʃƶ ‹ɔȷʓɽʄʌɟɽ› ʋȷ ɋ̃ʄɀʃ ꞇ̑ɀ̃ɿ ɽ́ɟɔı ɽʃɀ ꞇʄʋʄ ƶ́ȷʓȷ ɀ̑ı ɽʃƶ ‹ɤȷʓ̆ȷ› ɤ́ pɽɋi ɔ̃ ɽ́ɟɔı ꞇʄʋʄ ʋȷ ꞇ̑ɀ̃ɿ ʓȷ ƨȷʒ́ ʌʄɽɟ ɀʇ: Claudia hardly ever drinks beer or wine, unlike Phillip, for whom the bar is practically a second home.
xAiNb dek u lAj mjSlj sjSkjN lAj. "He looks like his brother."
si tur co kuNhirN loC u rm mSkuL nKd mjSlj xq kq zigiL. "The old man stumbled, as if he were about to fall."
gLfN ano fS ny aNcemN nj cjhou xq dek nN fk osole ye koNyeC wexoN feLciN mjSlj yoK azurL ry fS ny aNcemN si hAi oheL. The disgust I felt after watching last weekend's horror movie was unlike anything I had felt before.
rm 〈 kjlAudia 〉 bj xuNyr cKyqN iSko ry cubu mjSlj yoK rm 〈 fjljT 〉 fS paxo kN iSko cubu bj cKyqN lj njwS dui ye. Claudia hardly ever drinks beer or wine, unlike Phillip, for whom the bar is practically a second home.
When used with the negatitive particle yôk, it means that the marked noun phrase is not a likeness of the action or state of the predicate. In English, the word "unlike" would be an equivalent.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
Genitive
The yê particle precedes this noun phrase. There is a key syntactic difference from the other preposition phrases. For noun phrases with a genitive role, they appear directly after another noun phrase, they are not free-standing constituents of the sentence.
This role is used for a noun phrase that is either:
- an attribute
- a possessor, or
- has some other relationship
to the preceding noun. In English, this represents some of the senses of the word "of".
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
nîo bi xoînbo li fonmot yê kon oncêmon umo. "He seemed devoid of human feelings."
bêmon in cukto onô kôî dî nîltûgu hoî ozûul wokût tô bêmon yê môî dûî zomo. "The contract can be terminated at any time with the agreement of both parties."
Using a genitive preposition phrase can create many different relationships between two noun phrases. What these relationships are differs depending on the context and the words chosen.
Below are a multitude of interesting genitive relationships from around the world. Not every example is directly translatable into English using the aforemented "of". Often English makes use of alternative prepositions like "with", "by", and "for", whereas Hîsyêô only has those kinds of prepositions attached to a predicate of a sentence (linked to the verb of the sentence).
However, equipped with the simple yê preposition, context, and supporting word choices, you can effectively communicate all of these genitive relations. If your interlocutor still does not understand, you can make use of clarifying words to achieve the specific meaning you were after.
Descriptive Genitive - Specifies some detail of the preceding phrase. "described by" or "characterized by" are equivalent English expressions. This is a catch-all genitive for when the attribution is ambiguous.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
If you need to explain that the book has a red skin instead of being about red skin, you can clarify that the genitive relationship is descriptive by using êtsô:
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
Possessive Genitive - Specifies the preceding phrase as being owned or possessed by the attached genitive phrase. "belonging to" or "possessed by" are English equivalents.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
You can clarify that a genitive relationship is possessive by using fuî:
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
Familial Genitive - Specifies the preceding phrase as having a familial relationship with the attached genitive phrase. "related to" is an equivalent English expression. This is considered a subset of Possessive Genitive.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
You can clarify a genitive relationship is familial by using lîtiwe:
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
Partitive Genitive - Specifies the preceding phrase as being part of some larger whole or set. "Which is part of" is an equivalent expression in English. Sometimes the preceding phrase only contains a quantity word or yogô.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
You can clarify a genitive relationship is partitive by using yogô:
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
Attributive Genitive - Specifies the attached genitive phrase as being an attribute or innate quality of the preceding phrase. Semantically similar to regular modifier usage but more emphatic in its attribution.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
You can clarify a genitive relationship is attributive by using dî alone or fuî and dî:
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
Attributed Genitive - Specifies the preceding phrase as being an attribute or innate quality of the attached genitive phrase. "attributed to" or "is an attribute of" are equivalent English expressions. The opposite of Attributive Genitive. The preceding phrase must be a concept that can be considered an attribute and the attached genitive phrase must be a thing that can be attributed (and specifically can be attributed the thing that is the preceding phrase).
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
hîyôlî yê oksûn "weakness attributed to muscles" (lit. weakness of muscles)
xowosê onô yê boxô kon wêloi xôn. "the happiness attributed to a good work place" (lit. the happiness of a good working place)
You could clarify this genitive relationship using lîtiwe although some directional ambiguity would remain:
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
You could clarify this genitive relationship using dî although some directional ambiguity would remain:
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
You could also try clarifying that even further using lîmîen:
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
Genitive of Material - Specifies the preceding phrase as being made of a material. "made out of" or "consisting of" are equivalent English expressions.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
You can clarify a genitive relationship is material by using kûsowî:
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
Genitive of Content - Specifies the preceding phrase as containing within itself the attached genitive phrase. "full of" or "containing" or equivalent English expressions. Similar to the Material Genitive but the contents are a separate entity from the material of the container.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
You can clarify a genitive relationship is content by using fuî lîmîen:
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
You can also clarify this relationship with môtowo:
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
Epexegetical Genitive - Specifies the attached genitive phrase as being another separate way to explain the preceding phrase. "which is", "that is", "namely", "who is" are equivalent English expressions.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
You can clarify this genitive relationship by using a subordinate clause and a copula instead of a genitive phrase:
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
Genitive of Destination/Purpose - Specifies the destination or purpose that the preceding phrase is leading to. "for the purpose of", "destined for", "towards", "into" are equivalent English expressions.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
You can clarify this genitive relationship by using a subordinate clause with an inner til preposition:
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
Genitive of Production - Specifies that the preceding phrase is made by the attached genitive phrase. "produced by" is an equivalent English expression.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
You can clarify that a genitive relationship is production by using til:
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
Genitive of Product - Specifies that the preceding phrase is a producer of the attached genitive phrase. "which produces" is an equivalent English expression.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
You can clarify that a genitive relationship is a product by using ônî or foko:
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
In fact, the first one using ônî still requires the second yê because otherwise it would mean "an afraid causer" which is not the intending meaning. The second one, however, does not require either yê because of its coupling nature.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
Genitive of Separation - Specifies that the preceding phrase is separate from the attached genitive phrase. "out of", "away from" ,or simply "from" are equivalent English expressions.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
You can clarify that a genitive relationship is separation by using a subordinate clause with dî and sûn:
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
Genitive of Source - Specifies the origin of the preceding phrase. "out of", "derived from", "dependent on" are equivalent English expressions. This genitive can often be bettered expressed using the sun thematic role marker.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
îskô cûbû nexê yê fenûo Xonpên "wine out of Champagne" (lit. intoxicated fermented drink of region Champagne)
nomû yê îlê nokdo onô "wood derived from the old building" (lit. wood of old building)
You can clarify that a genitive relationship is Source by using a subordinate clause with gô and sûn:
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
Genitive of Price/Value - Specifies the price or value of the preceding phrase. "for", "worth" are an equivalent English expressions. The attached genitive phrase must contain concepts of money, value or amount.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
mokon sûît yê dûî munî "candy for two dollars" (lit. sweet food of two monies)
niswî kûdu yê dus yônê "three horses worth ten goats" (lit. three horses of ten goats)
You can clarify that a genitive relationship is Price/Value by using wîlûwo:
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
Genitive of Time - Specifies the time or duration of the preceding phrase. "during", "at", "within", "for" are equivalent English expressions. The attached genitive phrase must contain concepts of time or duration.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
tûu yê tukwos suhot "work for eight hours" (lit. action of eight hours)
wokût kon mokon yê suhot xêtî "breakfast at seven o'clock" (lit. eating time of the seventh hour)
nô yê bitûn "movement during the night" (lit. movement of night)
You can clarify that a genitive relationship is Time by using wokût:
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
You can also clarify this relationship using a subordinate clause and the preposition hoî:
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
Genitive of Place - Specifies a vague local relation to the preceding phrase. "in", "at", "through", "over" are equivalent English expressions. The attached genitive phrase must contain concepts of location. Often uses the words opotu or sekano.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
niwos yê hônyo niwa je honja "cabin in the woods" (lit. residence of the wilderness)
kon tuluti noyo yê fenûo onô yê bîômu nubuso. "my travels through the marsh" (lit. my traversings of the region of wet biome)
You can clarify that a genitive relationship is Place by using boxô:
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
You can also clarify this relationship using a subordinate clause and hoî:
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
Genitive of Means - Specifies the instrument or means of the preceding phrase. "by", "by means of" are equivalent English expressions. This genitive can often be better expressed using the wija thematic role marker.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
You can clarify this relationship using a subordinate clause and tô:
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
Genitive of Agency - Specifies the agent that is engaged with the preceding phrase. "by", "by means of" are equivalent English expressions. The attached genitive phrase must contain a person or other active entity to be seen as this type of genitive and often can be easily misconstrued as a Possessive Genitive.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
You can clarify this relationship using a subordinate clause and tô:
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
Genitive of Reference - Specifies a reference entity that helps better explain the preceding phrase. "with reference to" or "with respect to" are equivalent English expressions. This genitive can often be bettered expressed using the so thematic role marker.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
You can clarify this relationship using the connector en instead of a genitive phrase:
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
Subjective Genitive - Specifies or describes the subject of the preceding phrase when the preceding phrase is a verb phrase or a noun phrase that contains an action. This genitive can always be converted into a sentence where the genitive noun phrase is the subject of the action. Some constructions could either be subjective or objective genitive but context can help identify the appropriate type.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
You can also represent this genitive relationship by replacing the whole relation with a subordinate noun clause:
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
You can also clarify this genitive relationship with kôs:
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
Objective Genitive - Specifies or describes the object of the preceding phrase when the preceding phrase is a transitive verb phrase or a noun phrase that contains a transitive action. "for", "about", "concerning", "towards", "against" are English equivalent expressions. This genitive can always be converted into a sentence where the genitive noun phrase is the object of the action.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
kôto nûs yê mocko "our conversation about cats" (lit. our speech of cats)
kelo yê fos sinsî noyo ( li gô) dên sinsî dîzel onô "a game of my city against the other city" (lit. game of which my city (is) against another city)
You can clarify this genitive relationship by replacing the whole relation with a subordinate noun clause while describing the object (and kôs can be used to intepret "about" more appropriately):
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
nûs kôto sî sin yê selôhô yê mocko (lit. we said things of a topic of cats)
sinsî noyo kelo sî dên sinsî dîzel (lit. my city played against another city)
Plenary Genitive - Specifies or describes the subject and object of the preceding phrase when the preceding phrase is a verb phrase or a noun phrase that contains an action. Both subjective and objective genitive forms fit and the meanings should not contract but instead complement each other.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
You can clarify this genitive relationship by replacing the whole relation with a subordinate noun clause and xokôn dîzel:
The genitive particle isn't used with the negatitive particle yôk because it's meant to describe nouns through associating other nouns and there's already an existing way to describe zero nouns (xûnyu). You can achieve a similar kind of negative association by using a relative clause.
From...
Converting from the other content types into nouns.
Verbs
When a verb acts as a noun, it represents an archetypal object that has or will be involved in the happening of that verb action. Like the suffix "-ed" in English but also there are many concrete terms that English has to refer to these entities already. There are four ways that verbs can be expressed as nouns.
Direct/Thematic Objects
When a verb is provided as a thematic object, it represents the archetypal object/patient/theme of that verb. This can be after verbs (direct objects) or after prepositions (thematic objects). In this position, they are the nucleus of a noun phrase.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
mokon is being used as direct obect noun of the action "to cook". The thing that we cook (the position of the direct object) is called a "meal" and the thing that we eat is known as "food". Here, the "meal" is quite simply "food" in apposition.
Genitive Phrases
A verb can act as a noun when connected to a noun phrase using the yê particle.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
Abstract Nouns
There is a special coupling particle (kon) that can convert verbs directly after it into a noun with abstract connotations that can be translated into English as "matters of" or "acts of". This form is often used as the equivalent of simple gerunds where there's no additional thematic context needed.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
tîmîok kon wêtodû yê towê wîk pipôk "bald eagle" (lit. hunting bird of white head feathers)
ôntôn zûngô kon kelo yê kon doîcêl gundolê "baseball glove" (lit. playing hand glove of ball catching)
Agentive Nouns
There are two more particles that can convert verbs into nouns and they are both agentive in nature. This means that the final coupled noun is considered an agent of some action or state. For the first particle (ônî), the entity is a directly engaged in the action or experiencing the state. For the second particle (foko), the agent is causing something else to engage in the action or experience the state.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
foko mefûs wowoê yê kon nô fîkî "running shoes"(lit. foot safe-causer of fast moving)
ônî nô fîkî "runner"(lit. fast mover)
fecko foko hûnsik "red paint"(lit. red-causer liquid)
ônî wêko yê fecko foko longi "painter"(lit. placer of color-causer liquid)
Modifiers
A modifier cannot act directly as a noun. It must be preceded by the abstract non particle kon. When doing so, it means an uncountable quality and/or degree of being a given state. Like the affix "-ness" in English. Despite this, you can still use a modifier as the nucleus of a verb or a preposition phrase and when doing so, it's usually for a verb or preposition where an adjective is thematically meaningful. Sometimes, an adjective that exists as the nucleus of a noun phrase may be considered to be an impersonal pronoun with the word as dependent modifier. Be careful not to misuse the direct object slot for adverbial modifiers.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
Just like with verbs you can create a genitive phrase by preceding the modifier with the yê particle. This is useful for the typical reason that genitive phrases are useful: it allows you to describe a quality with some modifiers of its own. One of the most common usages is when adding a degree to a modifier:
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
Since Hîsyêô has less than 900 words, using genitive phrases with modifiers allows you to create more complex phrases that would require several sentences to formulate otherwise. In fact, modifiers can also be used with ônî to make explicit impersonal pronouns (if using a bare modifier would be ambiguous) and with foko to make causative agents of that modifier.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
Noun Clauses
A noun can be concrete or abstract, it doesn't have to be some physical entity or even a finite state. It can be a process or really anything that you might want to refer to and use as a subject or object of a sentence. In Hîsyêô, you can create these complex nouns by building sentences within a subordinate clause called a Noun Clause. In order to create one of these clauses, you must start with a particle. There are two special words available that can be used to introduce a noun clause:
- xe - Use this one for infinitives and gerunds
- fos - Use this one for complete inner sentences and indirect questions
After this particle, you start your sentence. In the infinitive/gerund form, you do not provide an agent/experiencer (subject) of the sentence because this is the nature of how infinitives are used: a noun that refers to the meaning expressed by the inner sentence but referred holisitically as an object in the outer sentence.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
While these noun clause gerunds are very useful, you must be careful to discern the distinction of meaning between the gerund usage of a noun clause leading particle and the abstract particle preceding a content word. The abstract form should be thought of as "acts of" or "matters of" which should be seen as more of a loose relationship than using a noun clause as a gerund. "acts/matters of eating meat" means something different from "eating meat".
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
The first sentence implies that the speaker hates specifically the act of eating meat whereas the second sentence implies that the speaker hates matters of meat eating altogether which broadens the hate to anything related to the act or its part in human life or otherwise.
The other form of noun phrase (introduced by fos) includes a subject or if one is not provided then, like a normal sentence, it should be intepreted as dropped or subjectless ("there is" or "it is") depending on the predicate that is provided. This form of noun phrase is useful when you need to introduce a clause that changes (or removes) the subject from the underlying sentence. Some verbs primarily are used with some form of noun clause as their object and this form allows for a complete sentence to be included as that object.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
The English sentence in the translation above "I want you to want me" is using an indirect object of "you" and an direct object infinitive phrase of "to want me". This might seem like the wrong translation since there is a preposition that Hîsyêô typically uses for indirect objects. This is just an example of some of the irregular English grammar around the use of the verb "to want". In Hîsyêô, the best approach is to use a finite noun phrase where the indirect object of the English sentence is now the subject of the inner noun clause.
Thematic Noun Clauses
When you use a subordinate clause as the nucleus of a preposition phrase, it often takes on a special meaning due to the combination of a thematic role and the non-concrete nature of subordinate clauses. Here's a list of the different interpretations:
Manner/Material: Accusative Relative Clause
Possibly the most unique of the bunch, due to the fact that this thematic relation is normally used for describing the action directly. When the manner/material thematic role is applied to a noun clause, it amends the description of the direct object as a relative clause.
- Latin
- ɽʋʄꜿɟʌ
bi fos bi ubênus wuîtsî xe ogolol, noyo lunsol sî gundolê nubuso yê zomo onô bi gîôn sumon en fos noyo kôî tûu. "Barely keeping a grip on it, I throw the dog's wet ball as hard as I can."
bi fos unon îskô cûbû ûn bîek sûn, nûs dênêmêk xe yosten gubuyo kon îskô onô hoî sinsî cûtî onô. "Smelling of beer and bread, we searched the small town for the local tavern."
bi xe sityo hoî môtô onô, li zowo xe tô hokôlî ogolol sî siskin wohî nîmû. "Sitting by the fire was the dog that bit your sister."
ʋȷ ɤ́ ʋȷ ɽʃʋʇƨ́ʃ ʒʃɽ̆ɟɐɟ ɋɿ ɽꜿʓ͊､ ƨɀ ʓ̃ʃɐ͊ ɐɟ ꜿ̃ʃʌʓʇ ƨʃʋʃɐ ɀʇ ⱴƶ ɽƨı ʋȷ ꜿɟɽ̃ı ɐʃƶ̃ ɽ̃ɿ ɤ́ ƨɀ ɔıɽɟ cʄɽʃ: "Barely keeping a grip on it, I throw the dog's wet ball as hard as I can."
ʋȷ ɤ́ ɽʃƨ̃ ɽ́ɟɔı ꞇʄʋʄ ɽ̃ʄ ʋɟɽ̑ɿ ɐ̃ʄ､ ƨ́ʄ ʌʇƨʇƶ̑ʇ ɋɿ ɀ́c̃ɿ ꜿʃʋʃɀ ɔ̃ ɽ́ɟɔı ɽƨı ɂɽɟ ɐ̃ȷɐɟ ꞇʄcɟ ɽƨı: "Smelling of beer and bread, we searched the small town for the local tavern."
ʋȷ ɋɿ ɐ̆ȷɀ ɂɽɟ ƶıcı ɽƨı､ ʓȷ ⱴʒ ɋɿ cı ɂɔıʓɟ ɽꜿʓ͊ ɐɟ ɐ́ȷɔ̃ȷ ʒɂɟ ƨɟƶʄ: "Sitting by the fire was the dog that bit your sister."
bj fS bj rbenrS wriTsi xq aglL, ny lrNsL si grNdle nrbrs ye zm ano bj gioN srmN qN fS ny koi tur. "Barely keeping a grip on it, I throw the dog's wet ball as hard as I can."
bj fS rnN iSko cubu uN biqK suN, nuS denemeK xq yStqN grbry kN iSko ano hAi sjNsi cuti ano. "Smelling of beer and bread, we searched the small town for the local tavern."
bj xq sjTy hAi moto ano, lj zw xq to hkoli aglL si sjSkjN whi nimu. "Sitting by the fire was the dog that bit your sister."
It might seem like this should just describe the manner since that's what this preposition is for. But, it isn't used for that in this case because the primary sentence structure is already the place where all simultaneous predicates exist. That is to say, if you are describing the action by further utilizing another verb (and you are thinking about using a subordinate clause), you can place this verb as another predicate within the main sentence body instead of using a preposition particle. This frees up this marker (when supplied with a subordinate clause) to be used for describing the direct object. Syntactically, this is the only valid preposition that can take a relative clause. Given that this marker is the only one that applies the supplied noun phrase adverbially, it follows that any subordinate clause should be interpreted as being related to the nucleus of the direct object.
Instrument/Means: Nominal Subordinate Clause
When the instrument/means thematic role is applied to a noun clause, it does not have a special interpretation because there are already reasonable situations where an instrument or means could be described using a subordinate clause.
Location/Time: Iterative Condition Subordinate Clause
When the location/time thematic role is applied to a noun clause, it has a special interpretation because there's no valid situation where a location or a time could be a full predicate. Just like the other thematic roles, the usage of this preposition with a subordinate clause is still meant to be semantically relevant. Thus, the meaning is taken as an iterative condition which in English can be interepreted as a clause prefaced by "whenever".
Direction/Destination: Terminative Condition Subordinate Clause
When the direction/destination thematic role is applied to a noun clause, it has a special interpretation because there's no valid situation where a direction or a destination could be a full predicate. Just like the other thematic roles, the usage of this preposition with a subordinate clause is still meant to be semantically relevant. Thus, the meaning is taken as a terminative condition which in English can be interepreted as a clause prefaced by "until".
Source/Origin: Inchoative Condition Subordinate Clause
When the source/origin thematic role is applied to a noun clause, it has a special interpretation because there's no valid situation where a source or an origin could be a full predicate. Just like the other thematic roles, the usage of this preposition with a subordinate clause is still meant to be semantically relevant. Thus, the meaning is taken as a inchoative condition which in English can be interepreted as a clause prefaced by "since".
Beneficiary/Purpose: Nominal Subordinate Clause
When the beneficiary/purpose thematic role is applied to a noun clause, it does not have a special interpretation because there are already reasonable situations where a beneficiary or purpose could be described using a subordinate clause.
Cause: Nominal Subordinate Clause
When the cause thematic role is applied to a noun clause, it does not have a special interpretation because there are already reasonable situations where a cause could be described using a subordinate clause.
Collaborator: Nominal Subordinate Clause
When the collaborator thematic role is applied to a noun clause, it does not have a special interpretation because there are already reasonable situations where a collaborator could be described using a subordinate clause.
Context/Condition: Nominal Subordinate Clause
When the collaborator thematic role is applied to a noun clause, it does not have a special interpretation because there are already reasonable situations where context or a condition could be described using a subordinate clause.
Counter-Agent: Nominal Subordinate Clause
When the counter-agent thematic role is applied to a noun clause, it does not have a special interpretation because there are already reasonable situations where a counter-agent could be described using a subordinate clause.
Evidence: Nominal Subordinate Clause
When the evidence thematic role is applied to a noun clause, it does not have a special interpretation because there are already reasonable situations where a evidence could be described using a subordinate clause.
Distance/Duration: Durative Condition Subordinate Clause
When the distance/duration thematic role is applied to a noun clause, it has a special interpretation because there's no valid situation where a distance or a duration could be a full predicate. Just like the other thematic roles, the usage of this preposition with a subordinate clause is still meant to be semantically relevant. Thus, the meaning is taken as a continuative condition which in English can be interepreted as a clause prefaced by "while" or "during".
Intermediate: Nominal Subordinate Clause
When the intermediate thematic role is applied to a noun clause, it does not have a special interpretation because there are already reasonable situations where a intermediate could be described using a subordinate clause.
Similative: Comparative Condition Subordinate Clause
When the similative thematic role is applied to a noun clause, they do reflect normal subordinate clauses but since this preposition fits the special similative class, there's a special way to intepret its usage wth noun clauses. The meaning is taken as a comparative condition which in English can be interepreted as a clause prefaced by "as if".
Relative Clauses
There are other uses of these same clause particles as relative clause introducers and you can learn more about those usages here.